Appendix A boat Racing 191 Appendix A boat Racing Bear Off. Steer away from the wind, shore, or object. To steer on a new course farther off the wind. Clear Astern and Clear Ahead; Overlap. ing terms describing the relative positions of two boats close enough to each other to possibly restrict their maneuverability. A boat is clear astern of another when her hull and equipment in normal position are behind an imaginary line abeam from the aftermost point of the other s hull and equipment in normal position. The other boat is clear ahead. They overlap when neither is clear astern of the other or when a third boat between them overlaps both. Lay Line. An imaginary line that brings a close-hauled boat directly to the mark. Mark. Any object required by sailing instructions to be passed by a boat on a specified side. Its anchor line and objects attached accidentally or temporarily are not part of it. Racing. The technical status of a boat entered in a race from the time of her preparatory signal until she has finished and cleared the finish line and marks, or has retired, or the race committee has signaled a general recall, postponement, or abandonment of the race. General 1 This section has been developed for the student who is curious about sailboat racing. It is this curiosity and competitive spirit that may have been piqued by the national exposure and interest created in the modern era of America s Cup racing. The challenge of the sport can provoke and maintain one s attention for years, and often a lifetime. Racing can be enjoyed by everyone from one person in a dinghy to a large crew on an ocean-going, deep-water yacht, each competing to wring the most out of the boat, the wind, and the waves. 2 Inclusion of this appendix in the course does not constitute an endorsement of racing by USPS or CPS. Prior approval of the Board of Directors is required before a squadron may sponsor any race. 3 Racing rules are common internationally and are published by the national authorities for sailing which in the U.S. is US ing. The rules are reviewed continually and are revised and published every four years. They are effective starting 1 January 2009, 2013, etc. Changes between publication dates are posted on the U.S. ing web site at <www.ussailing.org>. It is well to periodically review the web site in order to be aware of any significant changes to the rules or interpretations. The publication The Racing Rules of ing can also be purchased through the web site and any serious racer should have a copy. Courses 4 Triangular courses have traditionally been set for aroundthe-buoys racing. The start and first leg are to windward. A windward start gives competitors the best chance of getting an even start. The triangular course provides both close-hauled and reaching legs. More recently, courses with a combination of a triangle and windward/leeward (W/L) legs, called a Gold Cup course, have been used to provide a second upwind leg and a run. An Olympic course, is a triangle, windward-leeward-windward ( Delta /W/L/W) now in regular use. The Olympic course, normally sailed so that all marks are left to port, is shown by Figure A 1. Any of these courses may be shortened at one of the marks should weather conditions dictate. The shape of the triangle often varies, depending on the class of sailboat. Some require unique skills to excel downwind and much less skill reaching. Courses for this purpose have a very short reaching leg, enough to prevent additional congestion at the windward mark, and a very
192 Appendix A boat Racing R/C Finish TTG1 TTG1 - Tt 2 Figure A 1 Olympic Course Olympic /W/L/W Start long downwind leg where the skill of tacking downwind is tested. These courses are typical of Lasers and catamarans. For cruiser racing, courses are generally chosen around fixed marks as opposed to temporary floating marks set specifically for the race by the race committee for the occasion. These marks, and the sequence of rounding, are chosen to provide opportunities to compete on multiple points of sail: close-hauled, reaching, and running. Sometimes, for a number of reasons (for example, the unavailability of marks), it is difficult to set a course with an upwind start and first leg. Figure A 2 Timed Start The Start TTG = TTG1 + Tt 2 Tack Time = Tt 5 Races are of two types: boat-to-boat and handicap. In boat-to-boat racing, the first boat to finish wins. In handicap racing, the time to complete the course is adjusted by each boat s handicap rating, and the boat with the best corrected time wins. Both use a timed start signal. Each boat maneuvers to cross the starting line as soon as possible after the starting signal is given. It is not unusual to start 70 to 80 boats at one time. Even with sufficient length to the line, there will be boats over the starting line before the starting signal. These over earlies must return and restart and sometimes risk automatic disqualification. The race committee can minimize the number of over earlies by setting a line exactly perpendicular to the wind direction and locating the first windward mark directly to windward of the starting line. This is difficult with shifty winds. With a square line and the windward mark located well to windward, the windward start gives all competitors an equal chance to get a good start. Starting lines that do not provide a windward start or are not square to the wind typically result in crowding at the favored end of the line, over earlies, and potential rule infringements. Starting Signals Signal Flag and Sound Sound Minutes before starting signal Warning Class Flag 1 5 Preparatory P,I,Z,Z with I or black flag 1 4 One Minute Preparatory flag removed 1 long 1 Start Class flag removed 1 0 The Warning Signal for each succeeding class shall be made with or after the Starting Signal of the preceding class
Appendix A boat Racing 193 6 A timed start is preferred with many fleets. A typical method is to cross the line from the course side near where the start is desired and sail the reverse angle to that of the planned starting course, Figure A 2. At a time-to-go (TTG) equal to 1/2 of the TTG1 when the line is crossed in the reverse direction, plus 1/2 the time required to tack or jibe to reverse direction, begin the turn. Assuming equal speed both ways and little interference from competitors, this maneuver should put the boat close to the line at the start signal. With practice, this timing can be adjusted and a final time adjustment made to more accurately put the boat at the starting line exactly on time. A race committee usually times the start, using both visual and sound signals. The normal sequence of signals (See the latest edition of The Racing Rules for ing are: Warning (class flag + 1 Sound), Preparatory (P, I, Z, Z+I or Black flag + 1 Sound), One Minute (Preparatory flag down + 1 long Sound), and Start (red Class flag down + 1 Sound). See The Racing Rules of ing Conduct of a Race). For example, if the starting line is crossed on a reverse course with 5 minutes to go before the start signal and the estimated tack time is one minute, then the time before starting at which to tack to return to the starting line for the start can be calculated as follows: TTG=(5 minutes + 1 minute) / 2. TTG = 2 minutes. Note that this means the tack is started when the watch shows 2 minutes before the starting gun. Racers usually have a countdown timer which is set at the Figure A 3 One Design Race 5 minute warning so that the starting line is crossed at exactly the start time. 7 The visual signal is official and is accompanied by a sound signal: a horn, whistle, or gun. Common practice is to have a 5-minute interval between signals, but this can be shorter if planned. There are other flag signals for special purposes, such as recall or, over early. Classes/Ratings 8 There are hundreds of different classes of small sailboats, each with a following of sailors eager to compete with others of this class. As indicated, these, when racing within the class, vie for first to finish to win, Figure A 3. In many regattas, the low number in a class requires handicap racing between boats of different classes. In the case of cruising sailboats, this is almost universally true. The most popular handicap system is PHRF (Performance Handicap Rating Fleet) which, on a geographical area basis, is determined by the performance of the class of boat in past races. The handicap is in seconds per mile of course sailed. For example, two boats of moderate size and speed may have handicaps of 183 and 192. For scoring purposes, this number is multiplied by the course length in miles, and the result subtracted from the boat s elapsed time; minimum time wins. The time the first boat to finish has to give the second is the product of the rating difference (9 sec per mile in the example) times the course length, a figure easily calculated mentally by the competitor. Several other handicap systems are in use. One, the Portsmouth system, is called a time-on-time system (where the PHRF is time-on-distance). In this system, the elapsed time is divided by a fraction (i.e., 0.95), developed from past performance, relative to the fleet average. Other systems of rather low usage, such as IOR and MHS, are based on theoretical speed potential. These systems assign a handicap number that is related to the waterline length and speed of an ideal hull of that length. Rules 9 The rule books are revised every 4 years and the 2009-2012 will be published shortly after this manual is first printed. The rule book contains many rules, only a few rules are commonly used. One is a port-tack yacht shall keep clear of a starboard tack yacht, which is self-explanatory and applies except in some mark roundings. Another is a windward yacht shall keep clear of a leeward yacht.
194 Appendix A boat Racing 10 Rules that apply at marks are framed to allow the inside yacht to have room. A vital part of the current rule book is a list of definitions, some of which are contained in the glossary at the beginning of this Section, that are useful in framing the rules. It should be noted that additional rules may be included in the sailing instructions for a race. The rules are enforced by competitors protesting others for infractions. Protests are generally resolved by having the offending boat immediately preform "penalty turns" or later by a protest committee. Fine Points 11 It may be obvious, but it is difficult for a boat beating to pass another boat to windward on the same tack because of the intervening disturbed air, Figure A 4. The proper tactic of the lead boat is to cover the leeward boat. Covering means steering to keep the leeward boat in the disturbed air and tacking to cover when the leeward boat tacks. Proper execution by the lead boat increases the distance of separation or lead, and poor execution allows the possibility of the leeward boat to get clear air, and to sail on equal terms. Covering is, of course, more difficult on other points of sail, since the lead boat can seldom control the wind of his competitor. Downwind, the roles are indeed reversed from the upwind case described. 12 The America s Cup and other specialized championships are competed by match racing, where there are only two competitors in a particular race. Here the winning tactics are covering, or escaping from cover, rather than the preferred course to the mark. Protests, which often occur in the close maneuvering involved in match racing, are usually settled immediately by on-the-water umpires. 13 Luffing. This is altering course toward the wind and in combination with the windward - leeward rule provides for a highly effective defensive tactic. The rules require the maneuvering yacht to give an obligated yacht room and opportunity to keep clear. However, a lead leeward yacht may luff, if she pleases, to prevent a windward yacht from passing. Thus, a quick luff must be responded to, and failure to is an infringement. This means when attempting to pass to windward, a yacht must be alert and try to maintain adequate additional clearance. 14 Favored Course. When beating to windward, classically the most challenging point of sail, a number of factors relate to the selection of the desired route. Given Backwind Slower Shadow Slower Figure A 4 Disturbed Air a square line, the windward tactic could be to play the wind shifts and puffs so as to tack on each header. A header is a shift that forces the boat below its present course to stay on the wind. A lift is one that permits sailing higher than the present course. As shown by Figure A 5, this technique results in a tacking angle less than with a steady wind and a shorter distance to the mark. Another tactic would be to predict an overall, long-term shift, such as occurs with a clocking sea breeze during the day in coastal waters. On a long beat to windward, this effect could be significant, Figure A 6. A combination of this technique, staying to the right of the course, and tacking on headers could be most effective. 15 In close competition, the actions of the competitors are significant. If there is but one boat to beat, and your boat is ahead, covering the other boat is required, regardless of its course. When in a poor position and not anticipating to break through the boats to windward, taking a flyer may be the desired approach. Go to the opposite side of the course from the pack and hope for a major shift in your favor. Occasionally, this works. 16 When reaching, it is wise not to let your competitor lure or drive you above the lay line. The expression what goes up must come down is applicable when sailing much broader to the wind. Coming down to round the mark is much slower, allowing those reaching directly or below to pass and reach the mark sooner. This concept tends to contradict efforts made to pass to windward far enough away to avoid a luff. Any effort made to pass
Appendix A boat Racing 195 ward Mark Distance=3.1 Distance=3.5 Ignoring Shifts Header Tacking On Headers Lift Header Header Figure A 5 Tacking on Shifts to windward must be accompanied by a fortuitous puff abeam that will provide sufficient push to get ahead of the leeward boat before the puff reaches your competitor and then allow your boat to come back down to the course. 17 Running is a tedious problem for the leader. It is easy for your competitor to cover your wind from behind, and constant course changes and jibes are required in order to maintain clear wind. Start ward Mark 18 Tacking Down. With most boats in light wind, and with catamarans and planing hulls in heavier air, it is very advantageous to tack downwind. This refers to a zigzag course such as one sails upwind, sailed this way because sailing a broad reach is often much faster than sailing downwind. This is because the apparent wind on a broad reach is stronger than downwind where it is decreased by the speed of the boat. (See figures 9 10 and 9 11 of Section 9.) The effectiveness of this tactic depends on a course chosen as a balance between speed and increased distance to the mark. The drawing of Figure A 7 shows how this choice varies with wind speed for a particular hull. Figure A 6 Clocking Start
196 Appendix A boat Racing 19 Light. Although a race committee will avoid starting a race in very light winds, less than 4 to 5 knots, for example, there is little control after the race has started, and often the period of light wind is limited. If there are prolonged light winds, the time limit may cause the race to be abandoned, or, more properly, the race will be shortened and finished at one of the rounding marks. Competition in extremely light wind requires some different skills from those of normal breezes. shape is one critical factor. The draft must be maximized and, also, the angle to the apparent wind increased. The boat must be kept moving, if only to maintain steerage. Even more important than with normal winds is to sail where the wind is. Keep track of the cats-paw ripples and sail to them almost without regard to the point of sail. Movement of the crew on the boat should be minimal to preclude loss of sail trim. Try to maintain sail shape by taking boom weight off (by the topping lift or by hand), use light wind sheets on the jib, reduce parts to the mainsheet, etc. Although smoking is not recommended, wisps of smoke aboard are often the best telltale in light air conditions. 20 Planing. The difference between planing and displacement hulls has been covered elsewhere. When racing light displacement hulls, planing is a critical speed factor and can be induced at wind speeds of 10 to 12 knots and above. It is most often possible on reaches. The length of time a boat can be kept on a plane while maintaining it through varying conditions of wind and wave is critical. For instance, it is very difficult to drive the boat through a cresting wave, so one steers around it. As winds increase, the speed of the boat and the balance required become critical to the point where the safety of the crew and gear must be considered. Capsizing, broken masts, crew overboard, and submarining are all possibilities when planing in too much wind. 21 De-powering. There are numerous suggestions for heavy weather sailing, but when racing there may be an urge to push closer to the safety limits. It is assumed here that the common sense of reducing sail and taking measures for personal safety are just as important and adhered to when racing. One must be aware that being over powered by the wind is not only dangerous, but it slows the boat down. Even if reefed, occasional puffs will put the rail in the water or cause the boat to round up. Close attention to the main sheet, with quick release Figure A 7 Tacking Down and sheeting in for constant normal heel will keep the boat moving fast and smoothly. When additional reefing is no longer possible, the boat may be kept on its feet by de-powering, that is, by sheeting the jib so that it is flat at the bottom and free at the top. This can be accomplished by sheeting further aft. Similarly, the main can be eased aloft by adjusting outhaul and topping lift tension. Crew weight is critical on small craft, so the crew must be responsive. Summary 22 This Section has been a brief tutorial to whet the student s appetite for greater depth in this sport or to just remove some of the mystique of a unique pastime. Each year, particularly with the increased popularity of catamarans and wind surfers, thousands join the racing ranks. Perhaps the student will be one of them.