Elements for Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network

Transcription

1 Elements for Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network William D. Heyman Texas A&M University This article offers a case study of the process involved in the development of a national network of marine reserves to protect multispecies reef fish spawning aggregation sites. There are two guiding principles that engendered success for this unprecedented conservation event. First was the broad participation of a diverse group of stakeholders, particularly the local fishermen providing their traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). The second involved the search for patterns in geomorphology and its association to the biology of exploited species. Using diverse and patchy sets of data including published peer-reviewed papers, gray literature reports from Belize and other Caribbean nations, remotely sensed images, coarse bathymetric maps, new bathymetric data collected with a single-beam sonar, and reports of fishermen from various parts of the country, we developed a conceptual understanding summarized by the multispecies promontory hypothesis, which suggests a common geomorphology of spawning sites for most large and commercially important reef fish species. An explicit test of the hypothesis is presently underway but is not the only focus of this article. This article also addresses the participatory process of geographic discovery and the role of the process in building consensus around a functional biophysical hypothesis, its test, and the resulting conservation action. A holistic, eclectic, inclusive geographic approach is offered as a successful example. Key Words: Belize, ecosystem, marine reserves, participation, spawning aggregation. Some of the most influential and charismatic leaders who played a crucial role in building social capital, creating linkages among various stakeholder groups, and building awareness and capacity include the following: S. Hoare, N. Requena, E. Cuevas, J. Young, B. Young, W. Maheia, L. Garbutt, S. Pech, D. Neal, and D. Silva. Key examples of each of their contributions are provided throughout this article, although names have been removed from events to maintain anonymity of social actors. The program described resulted from the financial support of many organizations and individuals both national and international. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) was particularly generous throughout the process, as they directed funding from key private family foundations such as the Summit Foundation and the Oak Foundation. TNC s long-term commitment to this program was also critically important. The World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife Conservation Society funded various aspects and provided many small grants to each of the participating local organizations. The Government of Belize offered duty-free fuel for field expeditions. All local nongovernmental organizations and marine reserves offered boat use, dive gear and other equipment, and, most important, staff time. Carol and Richard Foster, wildlife filmmakers, provided extensive video footage and edited products that moved this initiative forward. Fishers offered their time and invaluable expertise. In short, the collective contributions of individual stakeholders, local and international nongovernmental organizations, and the Government of Belize made this process the success that we see today. Shin Kobara helped develop Figure 1. The Professional Geographer, 63(4) 2011, pages 1 14 C Copyright 2011 by Association of American Geographers. Initial submission, December 2008; revised submission, June 2010; final acceptance, September Published by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

2 2 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 Este artículo presenta un estudio de caso del proceso implícito en el desarrollo de una red nacional de reservas marinas para proteger los sitios de agregaciones de múltiples especies de peces arrecifales para el desove. Hay dos principios orientadores que generaron el éxito de este evento conservacionista sin precedentes. Primero estuvo la amplia participación de un grupo diverso de personas interesadas, en particular los pescadores locales que proporcionaron su conocimiento ecológico tradicional (TEK). El segundo se refiere a la búsqueda de patrones geomorfológicos y su asociación con la biología de las especies explotadas. Mediante el uso de conjuntos de datos diversos y fragmentarios que incluyeron artículos publicados del género arbitrado, informes de literatura gris de Belice y otras naciones caribeñas, imágenes de percepción remota, mapas batimétricos básicos, nuevos datos batimétricos obtenidos por sonar de haz sencillo e informes de pescadores de diversas partes del país desarrollamos un entendimiento conceptual que se resume en la hipótesis de promontorio de múltiples especies, lo que sugiere una geomorfología común de los sitios de desove para las especies más grandes y comercialmente importantes de de peces arrecifales. Actualmente se lleva a cabo un examen evaluativo explícito de la hipótesis, pero eso no es el foco único del artículo. En efecto, este artículo aboca también el proceso participativo del hallazgo geográfico y el papel del proceso para alcanzar consenso sobre una hipótesis biofísica funcional, su prueba y la acción conservacionista resultante. Se ofrece un enfoque geográfico holístico, ecléctico e incluyente como ejemplo exitoso. Palabras clave: Belice, ecosistema, reservas marinas, participación, concentración de desove. Marine resources are in decline globally due to habitat degradation and overfishing to meet increasing demand, but most are in general decline due to inadequate fisheries and marine habitat management. Maximizing exploitation, sometimes under the guise of maximum sustainable yield, has driven the history of fisheries. Management systems have been devised for major industrial fisheries, yet the majority of the world s fisheries and marine ecosystems have suffered from slow, misguided, ineffective, incomplete, or nonexistent management, resulting in synergistic tragedy of the commons (Hardin 1968; Jackson et al. 2001; Worm et al. 2006). Typical fisheries management has generally failed miserably, due in part to the management approach that has been taken. Some fisheries have collapsed as a result of intensive unmanaged fishing and a lack of political will for conservation. Other fisheries have collapsed due to single-species management efforts that are too simplistic and have not adequately addressed the problems within an appropriate geographic or ecological context. There are many examples of these failures, but the serial depletion of molluscan resources in the Gulf of California and the depletion of Nassau grouper spawning aggregations (SPAGS) throughout the Caribbean (Sadovy 1994) are two that adequately illustrate the point. There is a growing awareness that marine management should rely on ecosystem-based management principles (e.g., Jackson et al. 2001; Pikitch et al. 2004; Feeley et al. 2008). Indeed, the idea was codified for U.S. waters in the amended Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (PL ) in Nonetheless, debates continue about what the concept means, and there are few realworld examples of its application. Ecosystems include biotic and abiotic components, but the diversity, density, and distribution of the biota are generally dictated by the physical characteristics of the environment. The geologic history of an ocean basin, from tectonics to sedimentation and deposition, scouring, and changes in sea level, all contribute to the extant structure and geomorphology of the sea bottom. The geomorphology and structure provide resulting niches, which in turn serve as habitat, of greater and lesser value, for a wide variety of colonizing marine species. The distribution of coral reefs serves as an example of this principle of biogeography for sessile organisms. Coral reefs can only exist within a narrow range of latitude, temperature, salinity, turbidity, and depth, and their range is restricted by each of these factors, any one of which can be limiting in a given location. Many marine organisms (e.g., fish) can move among a variety of these underlying habitats and structures to take advantage of the most appropriate areas for their developmental stage (larval, juvenile, adult), temporary or seasonal food sources, or valuable areas and times for reproduction. Physical characteristics like reef promontories, shelf edges, pinnacles, and reef channels all appear to provide habitat, somewhat predictably, for transient spawning aggregations of reef fishes ( Johannes 1978; Kobara and Heyman 2008; Gleason, Kellison, and Reid this issue; Coleman, Scanlon, and Koenig this issue). Fishers have intimate knowledge of the places where they fish. This can be considered

3 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 3 traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), a system of knowledge, practice, and beliefs that are derived from interactions with an environment over long periods (Berkes 1999). TEK is cited as playing an important role in local resource management of complex systems and dynamic systems (Folke 2004), can be gathered and compiled for use by scientists (Johannes 1978; Berkes 1999; Haggan, Neis, and Baird 2007), and can be used to support management planning. The Belize example that is the subject of this article differs from some efforts, however, in that the process of gathering that knowledge can be used to build collaboration with fishers in the process of conservation, rather than simply used as the information for scientific purposes. The purpose of this article is to provide an example of a new paradigm for fisheries and marine management processes that is based on two key principles: 1. Involving fishers in the process of research and conservation action 2. Using an ecosystem-based approach based on geomorphology as a proxy for critical life habitat (see also Wright and Heyman 2008) This article provides a detailed case study of a conservation process in Belize. The article also evaluates the involvement of fishermen in the synthesis, hypothesis testing, and conservation action surrounding the multi-species promontory hypothesis (Heyman 2004). I propose that the process is faster, is more equitable, generates more local support, and leads to a longer stream of sustainable benefits than typical processes experienced in most other locations. Other key lessons and conclusions are also provided. Materials and Methods Participant Observations and Fisherman Surveys Beginning in 1994, as a PhD student, I began establishing the support and trust of fishers through participant observations in their fishing boats and villages. I spent days freediving for conch and lobster and trolling and hand-lining with various fishers, mostly from Monkey River and Punta Gorda, in an effort to witness and understand their livelihoods. During these trips, I had opportunities for openended discussions about resource management issues and heard their concerns about the status of marine resources and water quality, illegal foreign fishers, the illegal production of fishing licenses, inadequacy of national enforcement efforts, and the effects of particularly damaging fishing techniques such as shrimp trawlers and gill nets for fish and lobster. Importantly, these observations and dialogues allowed me the time and opportunity to build trust with the fishers. This process began in 1994, expanded during ten years of scientific fieldwork (see section below Involving Fishers in Field Research ), and continues intermittently today. To quantify the seasonality of fishing, fisheries hotspots, and the concerns, opinions, and observations of fishers for conservation and management, I developed and administered a formal survey of fishers in the southern region. The results of the survey were included within a chapter of my dissertation (Heyman 1996) as well as popular format for distribution locally (Heyman and Hyatt 1996). This process proved successful and was expanded and repeated at a larger geographic scale (Heyman and Graham 2000). Involving Fishers in Field Research Many top-down approaches to fisheries management involve scientific studies, designed and conducted by regulatory agencies, that lead to policy outcomes that are ultimately imposed on the fishers in the form of fishery restrictions such as area or seasonal closures, gear or size limits, and so on. In contrast, I was convinced that scientific questions aimed toward effective management should be guided by the concerns of fishers and be implemented with their assistance. A major aim of this research philosophy was to demystify the scientific process. Involving fishers in every phase of the research allowed them to feel ownership of the process and ultimately the ownership of the results of the studies. I included fishers in field research starting with mangrove and seagrass studies in the proposed Port Honduras Marine Reserve in 1994 and I included heavy involvement of fishers in the study of reef fish spawning aggregations at Gladden Spit starting in 1998 and continued their involvement as the geographic

4 4 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 extent of the research expanded to Lighthouse Reef and Turneffe Islands Atolls. Some key fishers were heavily involved from the beginning, such as Eloy Cuevas and Sonny Garbutt, but many others (thirty or more) were involved off and on for various field expeditions. Each fisher was paid according to his level of experience and contribution. When fishers started with the research team, they were trainees and thus were paid only a small stipend to offset their costs. Depending on their level of interest, skills, contribution, and duration of involvement, their daily rates increased substantially. It was my goal to have their research stipend roughly equal or exceed what they could earn from fishing. During the time that they worked with the research team, fishers were trained in the use of a Global Positioning System (GPS) for navigation, boat handling skills with divers, and fisheries research methods (e.g., fish tagging, age and growth measurements). Because many of the fishers had little or no interaction with tourists prior to these expeditions, the trips also served to increase their familiarity with the needs, questions, and sensitivities of nonnatives in rough marine environments and thus increased their general readiness for the tourism industry. In some cases, the fishers skills rapidly improved and their transfer into the tourism industry was very natural. The Role of Government and Nongovernmental Organizations As the plight of Nassau grouper spawning aggregations became clearer, research and conservation on spawning aggregations expanded to the national scale via the formation of the National Spawning Aggregations Working Committee (hereinafter referred to as the Committee). The Committee included the Fisheries Department of Belize; local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as Green Reef, Friends of Nature, the Toledo Institute for Development and Environment (TIDE), and Belize Audubon Society; international NGOs (The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund for Nature, and Wildlife Conservation Society); and representatives from the fishing industry the National Fishing Cooperative. Each of these organizations played an important role in data collection, education and outreach, fundraising, and garnering the support of their respective constituencies toward a collective national effort. The Committee led national investigations with a particular focus on the endangered Nassau grouper (with initial leadership from the local NGO Green Reef) and additional, albeit lesser, focus on the multispecies aspect of spawning aggregation sites. A standardized protocol (Heyman et al. 2004) and database were developed for data sharing (Heyman and Adrien 2006). The value of strong leadership from local government and NGOs continues to be highly important and is discussed subsequently. Fishermen Exchanges, Training Opportunities, and Economic Alternatives Training Fishermen support their families by harvesting fish. Therefore, they are the most directly affected by marine conservation efforts, particularly fishery closures. Initial surveys of fishermen indicated a willingness to participate in marine conservation efforts, including closed areas and closed seasons, as long as they had other opportunities to make a living. For example, 92 percent of interviewed skippers believed that if Port Honduras were declared a marine reserve, then more tourists would visit the area. The same percentage wanted to be more involved as sport fishing guides (Heyman and Hyatt 1996). Many efforts were made to offer training for economic alternatives and to educate fishers about the potential ecological and economic benefits of marine reserves. Many of these training exercises were specifically targeted for those populations most directly dependent on spawning aggregation fisheries. There were three main types of opportunities presented for fishers, including south south exchanges (an opportunity for fishers to travel to meet and exchange ideas and perspectives with their counterparts in other regions), economic alternatives training courses, and participation in regional and national meetings. If a fisher (or anyone else) lives his entire life in one place and does not get to travel, it is difficult to imagine other places, or even to imagine drastic changes in the future of his surroundings. We used south south exchanges

5 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 5 as one tool in providing hands-on learning for fishers, particularly about marine reserves and conservation (Heyman and Stronza 2011). In the earliest example, the then-executive director of TIDE and I led a group of twenty-one fishers from the lesser developed southern part of Belize on a tour of the marine reserves in the more developed northern part of the country. The trip occurred as part of an effort to establish the Port Honduras Marine Reserve the first reserve in southern Belize. Another exchange occurred among fishers, scientists, and marine managers in Belize and Jamaica; still another took place between Belize and Indonesia with a specific focus on spawning aggregations. Many additional local and international exchanges have been implemented subsequently and each of these exchanges offered fishers a virtual glimpse at their past and possible future. Economic alternative training courses were a key component to the collective effort. Courses on SCUBA diving (certifications to basic and in some cases master) were offered at several times and locations for fishers at little or no cost. Similarly, fly fishing courses were offered in an effort to allow fishers to become catch and release fly fishing guides. Other courses were offered in the science and monitoring of spawning aggregations. The largest of these was called The Aggregation and was held for two weeks on the remote Half Moon Caye in March The course included more than eighty participants from nine countries, the majority of whom were fishers. The course also included Belizean university students, fishery officers, biologists, technicians, and others. Each of these diverse individuals participated in the event and helped to facilitate linkages among the diverse set of participants. Many smaller spawning aggregation monitoring training courses were offered at a variety of locations and times, in some cases by adding a few extra persons to existing or planned field expeditions; in others, with national or international participation. To have fishers see the regional value of spawning aggregation conservation and management, some fishers were invited to participate in international meetings. The best example of this was when we brought sixty fishers to the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries meeting that took place in Xel Ha in Mexico for a spawning aggregations symposium in November Two prominent Belizean fishers, Eloy Cuevas and Jack Young, spoke during the symposium and the Minister of Fisheries from Belize, Rt. Hon. Daniel Silva, announced his eminent plans to close aggregations in Belize as part of his concluding remarks. Engaging Senior-Level Policymakers Ultimately, it is political ministers who propose and sponsor legislation. There is no substitute for the education, involvement, and support of senior-level ministers. Minister Silva took the initiative to educate himself about our programs by involving himself in scientific briefing meetings and by attending training exercises in remote field locations including The Aggregation at Half Moon Caye, the meeting in Xel Ha, and several visits to Gladden Spit to witness firsthand the splendor of the aggregations. Silva was willing to take the political risks involved in bold action because he was fully briefed and understood the scientific and economic importance of protecting aggregations. He participated in the political process by being adamant that we educate the public about the value of the proposed legislation and determine who might be negatively impacted or object to the proposed policy changes. He insisted on talking directly to a number of wellrespected patriarch fishers both in the field and in his office to ensure that he was getting their opinions and support directly. According to Silva, all of the science, training, involvement, and so on is irrelevant if you do not have a minister who is willing to be educated and to act boldly in support of conservation. Building Public Awareness Following the advice of Minister Silva, the Committee collectively devised a national education and awareness campaign. This included a regularly released two-sided news report from the group that included actual monitoring data so the public could see the number of Nassau grouper counted at each aggregation site each year, along with short articles about the importance of spawning aggregations, the history of their exploitation, and their possible fate. Much of this same information was conveyed directly through radio and television using press releases for important training events and other activities, paid public service spots designed to

6 6 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 appeal to the public, and technical reports (e.g., Paz and Grimshaw 2001). Community consultations have long been standard practice in Belize for any new marine legislation. All members of the Committee sponsored the consultations at different times and locations throughout the country for their respective constituencies. Consultations generally occurred at convenient times and places (e.g., municipal buildings or schools in the evening) and involved both short presentations and public question-and-answer periods. An interesting component of these meetings was the use of both still and video imagery to stimulate the imagination of the public. Through the contributions of various researchers and especially wildlife filmmakers, video footage was made available for public viewing in both community consultations and television spots. These video shots included dramatic underwater footage as well as interviews with fishers many of whom were well known within the communities. The spectacular underwater footage coupled with the faces of familiar fishers enhanced the sense of understanding and local involvement for the public. The coconut telegraph is another important way that the public gained their information. In other words, each of the participants took away his own understanding and passed this information along to family, friends, and other contacts. Geomorphological Analysis and Other Science A key focus of this endeavor was an analysis of the convergent patterns of geomorphology and critical life habitat. By following TEK as revealed from published literature (e.g., Thompson 1944; Craig 1966, 1969; Auil- Marshalleck 1994; Carter and Perrine 1994) and from more recent interviews (Heyman 1996), it became clear that fishers were aware of the timing and location of several reef fish spawning aggregations throughout Belize. When the Committee began to contemplate a national analysis, we mapped all of the known sites based on published information (Figure 1). We also queried fishers for their knowledge of additional sites. Discussions with patriarch fishers from various parts of the country (e.g., K. K. Nunez from Hopkins, Jack Cabral from Belize City, Jack Young from Placencia, Eloy Cuevas from Monkey River, and Victor Jacobs from Punta Gorda) revealed localized awareness of several sites or additional species spawning at existing or known sites that had not been documented previously. Fishers from Hopkins knew about Glover s Reef and Caye Glory and a bit about Gladden Spit but did not know about other sites. Fishers from Punta Gorda in the south were aware of sites in the Sapodilla Cayes and Gladden but not of sites further north; fishers from Ambergris Caye were aware of Rocky Point and Caye Glory but not other sites. It was the collective TEK from fishers across a broad geographic region that helped shed light on an emerging pattern. A crude two-dimensional geographic analysis of all sites using nautical charts and available remotely sensed images revealed that most of the known sites occurred near sharp inflection points on reefs adjacent to steep drop-offs into deep water (Figure 1). Other locations had been similarly described from other parts of the world ( Johannes 1978; Claro and Lindeman 2003), but a functional hypothesis explaining the spatial and temporal patterns of transient spawning aggregations had not yet been developed. To explain the data that we had collected, we offered the multispecies promontory hypothesis: Multispecies reef fish spawning aggregations occur predictably at the sharp shelf break (20 45 m water depth) of windwardfacing reef promontories that jut into deep waters (>500 m; Heyman 2004). The biological aspects of the hypothesis are being examined by a large group of scientists and managers working throughout the country, monitoring many reef promontory sites using a standard protocol (Heyman et al. 2004). The geomorphological aspects of the hypothesis are being tested using three-dimensional (3D) analyses based on both remotely sensed data and bathymetric data collected in situ with a single-beam sonar system and integrated with ArcGIS following a protocol developed for the wider Caribbean (Heyman, Ecochard, and Biasi 2007; Kobara and Heyman 2007), used in the Cayman Islands (Kobara and Heyman 2008), and underway in Belize (Kobara and Heyman 2010). If a hypothesis is robust, it should be predictive. Using the hypothesis, we predicted

7 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 7 Figure 1 Map showing locations of multispecies spawning aggregations in Belize. the timing and location of three multispecies spawning aggregations in Belize that were previously unknown to fishermen or divers who frequent the areas (Kobara and Heyman 2010). In addition to studies of geomorphology, scientific studies were developed and implemented during this process to evaluate relevant corollary issues of adult fish migration to spawning sites, adult site fidelity to spawning sites, ecology of spawning for individual species (e.g., Carter, Marrow, and Pryor 1994; Sala, Ballesteros, and Starr 2001; Heyman et al. 2005), physical oceanography (e.g., Roberts 1997; Ezer et al. 2005; Roberts et al. 2001), larval development and transport, and the connectivity of spawning sites (see Heyman, Kjerfve, and Ezer 2008 for review). Results and Discussion The Committee and associated fishermen together documented seventeen multispecies spawning aggregations near shelf edges and almost entirely at what appeared to be reef

8 8 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 Figure 2 Monthly landings for mutton snapper, Lutjanus analis, were derived from quantitative interviews with eight commercial skippers, representing twenty-three fishermen. The data illustrate the seasonal exploitation of a spawning aggregation (adapted from Heyman 1996). promontories. Indeed, some of these sites were predicted based on the hypothesis and then subsequently verified with underwater visual observations and single-beam mapping exercises. Although proof is unlikely ever to emerge, the substantial amount of data collected in Belize between 1920 and 2007 appears to support the multispecies promontory hypothesis (Heyman and Requena 2002; Heyman 2004; Heyman and Kjerfve 2008; Kobara and Heyman 2010). Illustrating the importance of TEK, Gladden Spit was initially identified as a multispecies reef fish spawning aggregation based on interviews with fisherman (Auil-Marshalleck 1994; Heyman 1996). The seasonal harvest and spawning trends of various species were detailed further through formal fisher interviews (Heyman and Hyatt 1996). For example, the monthly harvest of mutton snapper was quantified from fisher interviews and the distinct peak in landings (March May) provided quantitative evidence of the occurrence of the spawning aggregation (Heyman 1996; see also Figure 2). The regional (international) value of the resource was documented by interviewing fishers from adjacent countries, who offered the timing, location, and value of their catch from the spawning aggregations in Belize (Heyman and Graham 2000). It took much longer to provide a relatively comprehensive scientific characterization of the multispecies aggregation there. Heyman and Kjerfve (2008) provided the most comprehensive, year-round characterization of a multispecies spawning aggregation to date. The data indicate that each species utilizes a predictable four-dimensional niche space (3D location and time) for their spawning aggregations based on currents and bathymetry and seasonal, diel, and lunar cycles. It thus provides a baseline for comparison for other locations and species in Belize and throughout the Gulf and Caribbean region. Initial comparisons with other sites indicate that the pattern might indeed be more widespread. TEK from Belizean fishers from other parts of the country confirmed that other multispecies aggregation sites followed a similar pattern to Gladden Spit (Table 1 and Figure 1). In the Cayman Islands, the timing and location of the major Nassau grouper

9 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 9 Table 1 Ten examples of confirmed transient multispecies reef fish spawning aggregations in Belize at sites indicated in Figure 1 Note:RP= Rocky Point; SC = Soldier Caye; CB = Caye Bokel; CG = Caye Glory; SB = Sandbore; HC = Half Moon Caye; SP = South Point; NG = Northern Glover s; GS = Gladden Spit; RF = Rise and Fall Bank. These data are derived and adapted from the following sources: Heyman et al. (2001); Sala, Ballesteros, and Starr (2001); Heyman and Requena (2002); Belize Fisheries Department (2005); Heyman et al. (2005); Heyman and Kjerfve (2008) as summarized in Kobara and Heyman (2010). spawning aggregation sites are also largely confirmed as multispecies aggregations and their shapes are highly consistent with Gladden Spit and other promontories in Belize (Kobara and Heyman 2008, 2010). Further observations at additional promontories and during additional months of the year at documented sites will help to characterize the regional variations, nuances of species assemblages, and specifics of this ecosystem-scale phenomenon. The generality of the multispecies spawning hypothesis is only addressed for Caribbean waters in this study, yet multispecies spawning aggregations have also been documented at reef promontories in the western tropical Pacific ( Johannes 1978). The hypothesis may not be universally applicable, may be scale dependent, and requires further research. Charismatic Individual Leaders as Catalysts The role of individual change agents is important. Successful conservation and management efforts must be built from consensus across

10 10 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 bridges that transcend typical barriers of language, personality, politics, and economic or social status, described as social capital (Ostrom 1990; Pretty and Ward 2001; Pretty and Smith 2004). The case study presented here adds support to the valuable role that social capital plays in conservation and management. There were numerous charismatic and contributing leaders in key positions engaged during this process. Some of these individuals provided links and help build trust among fishers, politicians, scientists, government technicians, ministers, NGOs, Spanish speakers, Creole speakers, Garifuna speakers, and English speakers. With three years of monitoring data in hand, the Committee proposed national legislation to protect the endangered Nassau grouper and its multispecies spawning aggregation sites. Two national meetings were held to discuss the draft legislation. Many patriarch fishers (defined here as those who had been fishing for more than thirty years and who have become well-respected elders in their respective communities) participated actively in these meetings. Some fishers negotiated for reductions in the scope of the legislation and for direct compensation for displaced fishers. The fishers agreed with the concept but suggested that the size of the aggregation closures be reduced. Negotiating for the Committee, a high-level representative from the Fisheries Department rejected a request by fishers for an outright payment not to fish. He did accept reductions in the sizes of each of the closed areas based on a new set of maps that were developed by The Nature Conservancy. The fishermen insisted on a grandfather clause for traditional fishers for mutton snapper at Gladden Spit. Some critics have argued that there should have been a complete closure at Gladden Spit and that all of the sites should have been larger. Based on the possibility of short-term conservation gains, those critiques are probably correct. Taking a longer look, however, concessions to fishermen helped build trust and social capital. The immediate result was broad fisher support for new national legislation that enacted an unprecedented suite of fishing closures. Concessions on both sides contributed to a growing collaboration and trust between fishers and managers that forms the foundation for effective conservation over the long term. As a final check before signing the legislation protecting spawning aggregations, Minister Silva requested that patriarch fishers join him in a public forum to ensure that he was adequately representing their interests. Each patriarch fisher offered his support (see photos and description in Heyman, Kjerfve, and Ezer 2008). Silva signed sweeping legislation in November 2002 that created eleven new, fully protected marine reserves surrounding the spawning aggregation sites and a closed season for Nassau grouper between December and March as well (Government of Belize 2003a, 2003b). The signing was completed at a public Fisherman s Festival, sponsored by TIDE, an important advocate for conservation and local sustainable development. In some cases, these new closed areas were within protected areas boundaries; in others, the reserves were created anew. In each case, management is being developed by the Government of Belize with the participation of local NGOs and with the fishing community. Conclusion This article provides an example of a new paradigm for fisheries and marine management processes that is based on two key principles. 1. Involving fishers in the process of research and conservation action 2. Using an ecosystem-based approach based on geomorphology as a proxy for critical life habitat Fishers are considered the most valuable source of basic information (TEK) on the timing and location of reef fish spawning aggregations ( Johannes 1978, 1998). Fishers are often also the most vulnerable to fisheries collapse and to management regulations and fishery closures given that their livelihoods depend on these resources. Through their involvement in research, training opportunities, and south south exchanges, fishers developed a deep understanding of conservation and management issues and improved their technical skills (Figure 3). Many of these fishers are presently working as tour guides, fishing guides, boat captains, dive masters, research assistants, and marine reserve rangers. Most fishers who are now working

11 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 11 Figure 3 Top: The Aggregation, a spawning aggregation monitoring workshop on March 2002 on Half Moon Caye in Belize showing the involvement of fishers, students, scientists, managers, rangers, and the Minister of Fisheries. Middle: Fisher K. K. Nunez working as a research assistant and holding a black grouper marked with an ultrasonic tag. Bottom: Fishers train other fishers to use a GPS. (Color figure available online.)

12 12 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 in alternative occupations are making more money annually than they did as fishers and are now contributing to marine environmental health. They are therefore highly supportive of marine conservation efforts. In addition to the heavy involvement of fishers, there are several additional stakeholders whose participation was essential. Broad participation by government, NGOs, and civil society were key to the success of this program. In this instance, an informal committee of diverse organizations, including some of their charismatic leaders, came together toward a common goal. Broadly trained persons with the personal skills and ability to transcend barriers of age, culture, language, educational level, race, and profession are particularly valuable for these efforts. The intensive involvement of technical-level people within the Fisheries Department who are directly responsible for national marine management, was essential to the success of these efforts, as was the Minister of Fisheries remarkable personal involvement and bold willingness to act. Currently, local capacity for administration, science, and advocacy is still evolving within Belize and other developing countries (Young 2008). Because of their pivotal role in conservation, long-term investments in tropical marine ecosystem-based management might best be made through support for the education and capacity-building for fishers, policymakers, and applied scientists from these developing countries. Building awareness in civil society was accomplished through a broad public outreach campaign and included radio, television, newsletters, and the coconut telegraph via the involvement of many local community members in the research efforts. The use of video was particularly important, allowing community members to see the natural wonders and the involvement of their friends and relatives in the process. A continued funding stream made this program possible, with main inputs from a few private donor organizations and others providing support from many additional sources. Given the enormous value of ecosystem services provided by tropical marine systems when contrasted to the relatively paltry sums that have been invested in their conservation, exponentially increased funding for this type of participatory, ecosystem-based marine conservation science should be viewed as sound societal investment. In summary, this article describes an approximately ten-year process from the personal perspective of the author. Fisher cooperation and participation in research was critical for the advancement of this regional ecosystem-based science program and for building the consensus for conservation action through legislation and enforcement. There are undoubtedly other points of view, alternative interpretations, and other conclusions that can be drawn. Because of the expanse of details and time covered, several issues are more amply discussed in other papers. I have omitted many names and events, sometimes to provide anonymity to the players, but more often as a result of poor memory and a lack of journal space. I have left a discussion of the effectiveness of the legislation and its enforcement for a subsequent article, although initial indications are available in Heyman and Wade (2007). The main results are that fish populations are responding positively in areas that are well enforced (e.g., Cubera snapper and Nassau grouper at Gladden Spit), but uneven enforcement has allowed some declines at the newly protected sites. Further, a high-level representative of the Fisheries Department, who participated in the negotiations, admitted recently to the author that the sizes of the closed areas are probably too small for sustainable management of the fish stocks. Future endeavors should be aware of these sobering lessons. To deal with this issue, Belize is beginning to make adaptations in their allocation of enforcement resources and increasing coordination among various enforcement entities. It is hoped that the documentation of the overall process of this participatory, ecosystembased marine conservation program will be insightful for professional geographers, applied scientists, fishers, managers, and conservationists in other marine and terrestrial settings. Literature Cited ArcGIS, Version 9.3. Redland, CA: Esri. Auil-Marshalleck, S A review of the occurrence of fish spawning aggregations in the Caribbean and the implications for fisheries management. CFRAMP Large pelagics, reef and slope fishes assessment subproject specification Workshop (LPRSF) Assessment SSW/WP/24, CARICOM

13 Building a Participatory, Ecosystem-Based Marine Reserve Network 13 Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Program (CFRAMP), Belize City, Belize. Belize Fisheries Department Report on the spawning aggregation of multi-species at Caye Glory, Nicholas Caye, Rocky Point and Sandbore (Belize). Belmopan, Belize: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Berkes, F Sacred ecology: Traditional ecological knowledge and management systems. London and New York: Taylor & Francis. Carter, J., G. J. Marrow, and V. Pryor Aspects of the ecology and reproduction of Nassau grouper Epinephelus striatus. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 43: Carter, J., and D. Perrine A spawning aggregation of dog snapper, Lutjanus jocu (Pisces: Lutjanidae) in Belize, Central America. Bulletin of Marine Science 55 (1): Claro, R., and K. Lindeman Spawning aggregation sites of snapper and grouper species (Lutjanidae and Serranidae) on the insular shelf of Cuba. Gulf and Caribbean Research 14: Craig, A. K Geography of fishing in British Honduras and adjacent coastal waters. Technical report of the Coastal Studies Laboratory, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA The grouper fishery of Cay Glory British Honduras. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 59 (2): Ezer, T., D. V. Thattai, B. Kjerfve, and W. D. Heyman On the variability of the flow along the Meso-American barrier reef system: A numerical model study of the influence of the Caribbean current and eddies. Ocean Dynamics 55: Feeley, M. H., S. C. Pantoja, T. Agardy, J. C. Castilla, S. C. Farber, I. V. Hewawasam, J. Ibrahim, et al Increasing capacity for stewardship of oceans and coasts: A priority for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Ocean Studies Board, National Academies Press. Folke, C Traditional knowledge in social ecological systems. Ecology and Society 9(3):7. Government of Belize. 2003a. Statutory Instrument No. 161 of Fisheries (Spawning Aggregation Site Reserves) Order, 2003, 161: b. Statutory Instrument No. 162 of Fisheries (Nassau Grouper Protection) Regulations, 2003, 162:1 2. Haggan, N., B. Neis, and I. G. Baird Putting fishers knowledge to work. In Fishers knowledge in fisheries science and management, ed. N. Haggan, B. Neis, and G. Baird, Paris: UNESCO. Hardin, G The tragedy of the commons. Science 162: Heyman, W., J. Azueta, O. Lara, I. Majil, D. Neal, B. Luckhurst, M. Paz, et al Spawning aggregation monitoring protocol for the Meso-American reef and the wider Caribbean. Version 2.0. Belize City, Belize: Meso-American Barrier Reef Systems Project. Heyman, W., and R. Graham, eds The voice of the fishermen of southern Belize. PuntaGorda, Belize: Toledo Institute for Development and Environment. Heyman, W., and T. Hyatt An analysis of commercial and sport fishing in the Port Honduras Marine Reserve. Belize City, Belize: Toledo Institute for Development and Environment. Heyman, W. D Integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development for tropical estuarine ecosystems: A case study of Port Honduras, Belize. Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC Conservation of multi-species spawning aggregation sites. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 55: Heyman, W. D., and G. Adrien A protocol and database for monitoring transient multi-species reef fish spawning aggregations in the Mesoamerican reef. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 57: Heyman, W. D., J-L. B. Ecochard, and F. B. Biasi Low-cost bathymetric mapping for tropical marine conservation A focus on reef fish spawning aggregation sites. Marine Geodesy 30 (1): Heyman,W.D.,R.T.Graham,B.Kjerfve,andR. E. Johannes Whale sharks Rhincodon typus aggregate to feed on fish spawn in Belize. Marine Ecology Progress Series 215: Heyman, W. D., and B. Kjerfve Characterization of transient multi-species reef fish spawning aggregations at Gladden Spit, Belize. Bulletin of Marine Science 83 (3): Heyman, W. D., B. Kjerfve, and T. Ezer Mesoamerican reef spawning aggregations help maintain fish populations: A review of connectivity research and priorities for science and management. In Caribbean connectivity: Implications for marine protected area management, ed. R. Grober- Dunsmore and B. D. Keller, Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. Heyman, W. D., B. Kjerfve, K. L. Rhodes, R. T. Graham, and L. Garbutt Cubera snapper, Lutjanus cyanopterus, spawning aggregations on the Belize Barrier Reef over a six year period. Journal of Fish Biology 67 (1): Heyman, W. D., and N. Requena Status of multi-species spawning aggregations in Belize. Technical report, The Nature Conservancy, Punta Gorda, Belize. Heyman W. D., and A. Stronza South south exchanges enhance local participation in resource

14 14 Volume 63, Number 4, November 2011 management and biodiversity conservation. Conservation and Society 9(2). Heyman, W. D., and B. Wade Status of reef fish spawning aggregations in Belize. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 58: Jackson,J.B.C.,M.X.Kirby,W.H.Berger,K. A. Bjorndal, L. W. Botsford, B. J. Bourque, R. H. Bradbury, et al Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293: Johannes, R. E Reproductive strategies of coastal marine fishes in the tropics. Environmental Biology of Fishes 3: The case for data-less marine resource management: Examples from tropical nearshore fisheries. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13: Kobara, S., and W. D. Heyman Caribbeanwide geospatial analysis of the location of transient reef fish spawning aggregation sites using remote sensing. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 59: Geomorphometric patterns of Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) spawning aggregation sites in the Cayman Islands. Marine Geodesy 31: Sea bottom geomorphology of multispecies spawning aggregation sites in Belize. Marine Ecology Progress Series 405: Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Public Law ); U.S.C (1996). Ostrom, E Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. New York: Cambridge University Press. Paz, M., and T. Grimshaw Status report on Nassau groupers for Belize, Central America: Towards a sustainable management of Nassau groupers in Belize. Workshop report, Green Reef, Belize City, Belize. Pikitch, E. K., C. Santora, E. A. Babcock, A. Bakun, R. Bonfil, D. O. Conover, P. Dayton, et al Ecosystem-based fishery management. Science 305: Pretty, J., and D. Smith Social capital in biodiversity conservation and management. Conservation Biology 18 (3): Pretty, J. N., and H. Ward Social capital and the environment. World Development 29: Roberts, C Connectivity and management of Caribbean coral reefs. Science 278: Roberts, C. M., J. A. Bohnsack, F. Gell, J. P. Hawkins, and R. Goodridge Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 294: Sadovy, Y Grouper stocks of the western central Atlantic: The need for management and management needs. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 43: Sala, E., E. Ballesteros, and R. M. Starr Rapid decline of Nassau grouper spawning aggregations in Belize: Fishery management and conservation needs. Fisheries: Bulletin of the American Fisheries Society 26 (10): Thompson, E. F The fisheries of British Honduras. Bulletin No. 21. Development and Welfare in the West Indies. Bridgetown, Barbados: Comptroller of Development in the West Indies (Advocate Co.). Worm, B. E., B. Barbier, N. Beaumont, J. E. Duffy, C. Folke, B. S. Halpern, J. B. C. Jackson, et al Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314: Wright, D. J., and W. D. Heyman Introduction to the special issue: Marine and coastal GIS for geomorphology, habitat mapping, and marine reserves. Marine Geodesy 31: Young, C Belize s ecosystems: Threats and challenges to conservation in Belize. Tropical Conservation Science 1 (1): WILLIAM D. HEYMAN is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX wheyman@tamu.edu. His research entails physical, biological, and social aspects of marine and coastal conservation.