Proceedings of the 1 st Quail Management Shortcourse

Transcription

1 Proceedings of the 1 st Quail Management Shortcourse Turner Center Exhibit Hall DeSoto County Extension Office Arcadia, Florida October 13-14, 2005

2 Front cover photo by L. Kornhak Back cover photo by S. Wellendorf 2

3 Proceedings of the 1 st Quail Management Shortcourse Sponsors Florida Cooperative Extension Service DeSoto County Board of County Commissioners Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Cooperating Groups Quail Unlimited Tall Timbers Research Station South Florida Beef and Forage Program US Geological Survey-Biological Resources Division Carlton 2X4 Ranch Farm Credit of Southwest Florida Turner Center Exhibit Hall, DeSoto County Extension Office Arcadia, Florida October 13-14, 2005 Edited by Bill Giuliano, Emma Willcox, and Adam Willcox Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Florida Cooperative Extension Service University of Florida 3

4 FOREWARD The northern bobwhite is a popular game bird wherever it is found. However, populations of this quail species are declining throughout most of Florida and the rest of its range. Much of Florida still supports populations of quail but for how long? Continued loss and alteration of habitat through development and poor land management practices threaten the future of quail in the State. The purpose of the Quail Management Shortcourse and this proceedings is to educate landowners, managers, hunters, and quail enthusiasts on the ecology and management of bobwhite quail in Florida using science-based information from a variety of sources, including landowners, the hunting industry, academia, NGO s, and natural resource agencies. 4

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS TAKING CARE OF UNFINISHED BUSINESS. 1 PAST AND PRESENT BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH CENTRAL FLORIDA 2 QUAIL FACTS.. 9 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN NORTHERN BOBWHITE HABITAT 16 IMPORTANT PLANT SPECIES FOR QUAIL AND CATTLE IN SOUTH FLORIDA 20 USE OF FIRE TO MANAGE WILDLIFE HABITAT: A CASE STUDY ON THE BABCOCK/WEBB WMA.. 24 MECHANICAL TREATMENTS FOR QUAIL HABITAT IMPROVEMENT 27 QUAIL HABITAT MANAGEMENT USING HERBICIDES.. 31 COWS AND QUAIL: CAN THEY COEXIST? FOOD PLOTS AND AGRICULTURAL CROPS: USE AND BENEFIT FOR QUAIL. 38 SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING AND BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT. 43 PREDATION MANAGEMENT AND BOBWHITES.. 46 IMPORTED FIRE ANTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.. 49 MANAGEMENT CHOICES: USING QUAIL MANAGEMENT TO BENEFIT OTHER WILDLIFE 67 HUNTING LEASES.. 70 THE PRESERVE PICTURE 74 BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT AND HUNTING IN FLORIDA S RANCHLANDS: AN OVERVIEW OF RULES AND REGULATIONS. 76 PEN-RAISED QUAIL: THEIR USE AND PROBLEMS FOR WILD BIRDS. 81 FEEDING THE HIGH PERFORMANCE BIRD DOG.. 84 STUDIES OF QUAIL HUNTING EFFICIENCY 90 5

6 TAKING CARE OF UNFINISHED BUSINESS Donald F. McKenzie Coordinator, Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative Wildlife Management Institute The wildlife management profession has a successful tradition of restoring wildlife populations from historic lows back to stable and recreationally viable levels. The list of familiar restored species white-tailed deer, wild turkey, giant Canada goose, bald eagle, American alligator, beaver, river otters, etc. illustrates good achievements over difficult challenges in their times. It is now the responsibility of wildlife conservationists to move forward and address remaining and new problems, while protecting past achievements. Over at least the last 40 years, even as deer and turkey restoration efforts were peaking, populations of the northern bobwhite quail have been steadily and significantly decreasing across most of their range. Bobwhite populations across the Southeast have declined by two-thirds since 1980 and by three-fourths or more since By no coincidence, several nongame birds that share habitats with bobwhites are also experiencing long-term and large-scale declines. Although numerous factors play some role in the declines, slow but widespread habitat declines are the overriding factor. More specifically, quail biologists have reached a general consensus that nesting and brood-rearing covers are the majority limiting factors across most of the species range. In 1998, the Directors of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (SEAFWA) took a large step to address the unfinished business by directing its technical committee, the Southeast Quail Study Group (SEQSG) to develop a regional, as opposed to a state-by-state, recovery plan for bobwhites. Never before to this extent have states subjugated their independent authority for resident species on behalf of a collaborative interstate planning and recovery effort. The visionary leadership by the Directors and the aggressive actions of the SEQSG indicates the seriousness of the quail situation. The SEQSG published the Northern Bobwhite Quail Initiative (NBCI) in This ambitious plan aims to restore bobwhite populations across their range to their 1980 levels, requiring some 81 million acres of voluntary habitat restoration, primarily on private lands. The NBCI separates the quail-manageable landscape into three components croplands, pasture/hay/range, and forest lands. Quail conservationists must successfully integrate meaningful but practical restoration and management accommodations into the working lands of each of these three land-use types if the NBCI is to reach its goal. In its first three years, the NBCI has been successful beyond all expectations. For example, the new 250,000 acre CP33 Habitat Buffers for Upland Birds practice in the U.S. Department of Agriculture s Continuous Conservation Reserve Program is a direct result of the NBCI. 1

7 PAST AND PRESENT BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH CENTRAL FLORIDA Tommy Hines Leader, Small Game Program Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Bobwhite quail have been considered the premier game bird in Florida since the latter part of the 19 th Century. In north Florida, large quail plantations that still typify the area in the Red Hills Region around Tallahassee, were put together by wealthy northerners during the post Civil War period. The tenet farm system and the widespread use of fire, which at the time characterized the region, created outstanding quail habitat. Interest was very high in maintaining high quality quail hunting on plantations. And as a result, in 1924, a group of influential and wealthy men, along with cooperation of various government agencies, provided financial support for H. L. Stoddard to embark upon a 5-year investigation concerning the life history and management of bobwhites. The Bobwhite Quail, It s Habits, Preservation and Increase, published in 1931, contained the results of this investigation. This classic study provided significant insight into quail management and since has been the beginning point of most management oriented quail studies. The eventual outcome of the Florida quail investigations was the establishment of the Tall Timbers Research Station (TTRS), which today is recognized as one of the foremost game bird research institutions in the country. However, until now, most of their work has been centered in the north Florida/south Georgia region. It wasn t until Fry (1954) published his dissertation, Aspects of the Ecology of Bobwhite Quail in Charlotte County, that any attention was given to quail management in south Florida. This was later followed by Loveless (1958), who published a thesis entitled Mobility and Composition of Bobwhite Quail Populations in South Florida. Fry s study was more management oriented, while the Loveless study examined life history. Outside of the two previously mentioned studies, little has been done regarding quail management in south Florida until recently. Some investigations concerning the effects of hunting on public lands in the region were carried out in the early 1990 s (Delaney 1993). As the statewide turkey flock and deer herd began to flourish during the late 1960 s and 70 s, the Game and Freshwater Fish Commission (GFC) put less and less emphasis on quail management and research. The philosophy was that quail management on public lands was too expensive for the number of hunters that could be accommodated. Outside of the 65,000 acre Cecil Webb Wildlife Management Area (WMA), which has been managed for quail since its purchase, quail management has not been emphasized on most public lands over the last thirty years. Since quail populations existed in reasonable numbers on many private lands, the decision not to make quail management a priority on most GFC lands appeared to be a reasonable position. In 1993, the GFC established a new small game biologist position. By then, it was apparent that statewide quail populations were seriously declining. More importantly, it was becoming evident that we were experiencing unprecedented land 2

8 use changes throughout the state. In addition, it was apparent that landscape scale changes were necessary to reverse the trend. Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative and Florida s Response The northern bobwhite has suffered serious declines throughout much of its range for at least three decades. It is estimated they declined 65.8% between 1980 and 1999 (Dimmick et al. 2001). In response to this serious downward trend, the Directors of the member states of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies requested the Southeast Quail Study Group (SEQSG) to prepare a plan for the recovery of the northern bobwhite. As a result of this request, the SEQSG prepared the Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI) (Dimmick et al. 2001). The objective of the NBCI was to restore bobwhite populations range wide to an average density equivalent to that which existed on improvable acres in the baseline year of Based on the North American Breeding Bird Survey, quail populations in Florida declined over 70% from 1980 until 2000 (Figure 1). Harvest has declined at a similar rate (Figure 2). In response to this dramatic decline in the quail population, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) has prepared a conceptual restoration plan and is in the process of expanding the conceptual plan into a comprehensive bobwhite restoration and management plan. The final plan will contain clear bobwhite habitat restoration objectives and strategies to achieve those objectives for each major land-use category in the state. Meanwhile, the FWC has implemented management and research projects which are on a parallel track to the developing management plan. One of these is a cooperative project between the FWC and the USGS Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at the University of Florida. It is investigating the effects of hunting on the Cecil Webb WMA. In the past, hunting season length and exposure to the gun did not appear to be an important factor in affecting quail populations. However, when intense hunting pressure is directed toward a fragmented population, scientifically based regulations may be necessary to control the harvest to prevent suppressing populations. If we are to offer quail hunting on Florida s public lands, it is necessary to understand how to provide quality hunting on a sustained basis. In order to successfully restore bobwhites, a significant amount of private land will have to be affected to achieve the regional and statewide bobwhite population goals. Early on, it became apparent that the south Florida ranchland community offered the best chance to achieve bobwhite habitat restoration on a landscape scale. In 2001, a cooperative project between the FWC and TTRS proposed to look at economic impacts of altering a working ranch landscape to favor bobwhites. A graduate student, Mr. James Martin, began that study. During the course of the preliminary study, it became even more apparent that the widespread habitat changes necessary for bobwhite restoration might be possible in the south Florida region. 3

9 Emphasis on bobwhite restoration in this region is logical because 73% of the NBCI population goal for peninsular Florida could be met through restoration of approximately 7% of native rangelands. There is high potential of meeting these goals on ranch lands because: (1) bobwhite populations on some ranchlands remain at moderately high levels; (2) degraded native range can be restored without changing land use; (3) individual ranches are large enough to permit viable populations, and landowner commitments affect large areas; (4) prescribed fire, an essential management tool for bobwhites, remains an important land management action; and (5) interest in bobwhite hunting on ranches remains high. A joint proposal was submitted by TTRS and FWC to the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) to fund a study to test the efficacy of utilizing Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) funds to achieve bobwhite restoration on rangelands in a 5-county focal area in south central Florida. The NRCS then designated the focal area and provided additional funds to those counties. Currently, the project involves TTRS, FWC, University of Georgia, University of Florida (UF) and the NRCS. James Martin is the field supervisor and is pursuing a PhD. Adam Butler who is pursuing a MS degree is on the same project. There are plans in the near future for additional UF students to become involved in this multidisciplinary effort to restore bobwhites and associated species in this region. Past Declines and Current Efforts Even though there are areas in the South Florida region which still contain moderately abundant bobwhite populations, the trend throughout the area has been similar to statewide trends over the last 30 years (Figure 1). Through the 1950 s, quail populations were high in the rangelands of south Florida. Similar to most situations where quail existed in good numbers in the past, quail were a by product of the prevalent land use. The widespread use of fire combined with scattered row crop agriculture created a plant community favorable to bobwhites. However, Fry (1964) pointed out that during the 1960 s we do not have the quail we once had, principally because of changing land use. The landscape has changed so radically in places, that extensive tracts of land have become completely unproductive for quail. Examples are the vast acreages of land that have been cleared for the establishment of improved pastures and citrus groves in some sections of the state. The trend described by Fry has continued and accelerated until the present. To provide some idea of the extent of the land use change, Davis (1967) and Kautz et al. (1993) estimated that in the 1950 s dry prairie, an important component of quail habitat in many cases, occupied 2,051,000 acres. By the mid-1990 s, they estimated 19% of the original extent. Bobwhites may occur in improved pasture, transition areas adjacent to quality habitat, or spots where tame grasses such as bahia have not established a thick sod because of unfavorable growing conditions. But large acreages of improved pasture are virtually devoid of quail. There are other factors which have depressed quail populations, but the outright loss of native range in south Florida has accounted for a significant portion of the population decline. However, there are still about 3,000,000 4

10 acres of native range left in Florida, and much of it occurs in the south Florida region. It is on this native range that good possibilities for quail management remain. Bobwhite Habitat Bobwhites thrive in habitats that have been disturbed, or are in what is described as an early successional plant community. Aside from conversion of native grasses to sod forming grasses, there are four major factors which have impacted south Florida rangeland. Cattle, fire, soil disturbance, and water levels have shaped the current south Florida ranchland landscape. Even though flooding can have a dramatic impact on quail populations, it must be considered an environmental factor that is, in most cases, out of our control. However, cattle, fire, and soil disturbance are the tools which can be used to create conditions favorable to bobwhites. In general terms, proper application of these tools in a plant community will provide cover and food. But the long term use of solely winter fires, reduction in fire frequency, and intensive grazing have resulted in the proliferation of palmetto (Sabal spp.) at the expense of bunch grasses, forbs and shrubs (Moore et al. 1982, Tanner and Marion 1990). While palmetto is beneficial to bobwhites when occupying a small percentage of rangeland, it appears to become detrimental when coverage becomes excessive (Fry 1954). It also is probable that, on native sites which have been grazed intensively for long periods, the native legumes have been completely removed, thereby removing an important source of quail food. In general terms, the objective of current research being carried out in the region is to test the efficacy of fire, roller chopping, and eventually grazing, for increasing bobwhite populations. This includes determining the proper timing and frequency of fire, and the extent and timing of chopping necessary for habitat restoration. Future The current emphasis in this region will almost surely improve bobwhite habitat, and may very well achieve the NBCI and FWC management goals for this area. However, the long term future for maintaining the land in a condition that will be productive for quail and other associated species remains problematic. I am confident that we can restore and manage quail in this habitat type, but the factors which threaten the native habitats of the region are forces far beyond knowing when to burn, and when to graze. Development pressure, high land prices, and high taxes all contribute to the price squeeze that ranchers feel. These pressures threaten the integrity of the area from a wildlife and ecological prescriptive. If we have no land to manage, knowledge on how to manage it is a mute point. The answers to the current land conservation dilemma in this region are difficult to obtain. However, there are some things which appear to be fairly certain. The state cannot afford to step in and conserve much more land. Secondly, it appears certain that landowners must receive compensation for their efforts to manage for wildlife. This may come as direct payments from wildlife users to the landowner, or it may come as compensation from public funds. It is likely that both methods will be necessary. Then, innovative means, such as tax incentives and easements for those wanting to conserve land need to come into play. Finally, as a 5

11 society, we must recognize that there are long term values associated with the land which supersede the highest monetary bid. Figure 1. Decline in counts of northern bobwhite quail in Florida as recorded by the North American Breeding Bird Survey between

12 Figure 2. Decline in harvest of northern bobwhite quail in Florida as recorded by hunter surveys between ,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 Quail Harvest 1,000, , Year 7

13 Literature Cited Davis, J. H General map of the natural vegetation of Florida. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Circular S-178. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA. Delaney, M. F Effects of harvest on bobwhite quail nesting in south Florida (feasibility study). Fla.Game and Freshwater Fish Comm., Bur. Wildl. Res. Final Rep. Dimmick,R.W., J. Gudlin and D.F. Mckenzie The northern bobwhite conservation Initiative. Miscellaneous publication of the Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, South Carolina. Fry, O.E Aspects of the ecology of the bobwhite quail in Charlotte County, Florida. Dissertation. University of Florida, Gainesville. Kautz., R.S., D. T. Gilbert, and G. M. Mauldin Vegetative cover in Florida based on Land-sat Thematic Mapper Imagery. Florida Scientist 56: Moore, W. H., Swindel, B.F. and W.S. Terry Vegetation response to prescribed fire in a north Florida flatwoods forest. Journal of Range Management 35: Tanner, G.W., and W.R. Marion Wildlife habitat considerations when burning and chopping Florida range. Cooperative Florida Extension Service Fact Sheet WRS-6. 8

14 QUAIL FACTS Bill Giuliano 1 and Jim Selph 2 1 Assistant Professor and Wildlife Extension Specialist Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation 2 Extension Agent IV, Livestock and Forages, DeSoto County Florida Cooperative Extension Service University of Florida While bobwhites are one of the most studied wildlife species, relatively little is known about quail in south Florida rangelands. A recently developed research program in south Florida rangelands is attempting to rectify this, and includes researchers from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Tall Timbers Research Station, US Geological Survey, and the Universities of Florida and Georgia. In this document, we try to provide some basic information on quail biology. What is a Bobwhite Quail? Officially called Northern Bobwhite with Colinus virginianus as the scientific name tall oz. fall-winter weights o Males are heavier than females o Birds in the South tend to be smaller than birds from northern latitude o Pen-raised birds (7+ oz.) tend to be heavier than wild birds - Fly up to 38 mph Where are Bobwhites Found? Most widely distributed upland gamebird in North America; found throughout the eastern US, eastern Mexico, and the Caribbean - Isolated, endangered race of masked Northern Bobwhite found in northwest Mexico and southwest US - Considered to be the same species throughout its range o As many as 22 subspecies or races have been recognized Florida has 2 races Eastern race in the north Florida race in the south o Races identical in appearance o Florida race slightly smaller - Introduced populations in several areas, including Pacific Northwest - A Florida Quail Myth: most quail found in Florida are descendents of Mexican Bobwhites released in the early 1900s o In the 1920 s ~400,000 birds of the Mexican race were released throughout the southeastern US, including Florida These birds are almost identical to our native subspecies, just a bit smaller 9

15 They were adapted to a different habitat and climate and did not do well in FL Research has shown that few of these birds survived and traits/characteristics from those birds that did interbreed with native birds were quickly diluted and totally obscured/lost How Can the Sex & Age of Bobwhites be Determined? Feather shape and coloration on the head and wings can be used to tell the sex and age of quail. - Males have black and white stripes on the side of the head - Females have brown and sandy colored stripes on the side of the head - Adult birds have rounded tips on the flight feathers at the end of the wing and solid colored smaller feathers that cover the base of these flight feathers - Juvenile birds have pointed tips on the flight feathers at the end of the wing and the smaller feathers that cover the base of these flight feathers have light colored tips What Affects the Abundance of Quail? The size of a quail population is related to the carrying capacity (K) of the land - K = the # of animals that can be supported under the current conditions, including the quality and quantity of habitat components (food, cover, water, and space), and limiting factors such as predation and weather o In good habitat quail have evolved a reproductive rate to balance typical mortality, including predation o When habitat is poor and or limiting factors are abnormally high (for example a new predator like fire ants, or drought conditions), reproduction cannot balance current mortality lowering or eliminating K, and leading to lower populations or declines o The key is the relationship between survival and reproduction, which are both effected by habitat The Bobwhite Annual Cycle All aspects of a quail s life cycle are important to survival and reproduction, and each requires a different habitat, many of which are not provided in modern landscapes. - During late fall-early winter, quail assemble in to groups of birds known as coveys. Such groups are better able to escape predation, survive winter weather, and forage than single or paired birds - In late winter-early spring, coveys break-up and birds pair-up for breeding - In spring, nesting and incubation of nests begins, and continues through late summer - Brood-rearing continues though late summer-early fall - During the fall, birds from various broods leave family groups and mix with others, eventually settling in to coveys by winter this is called the Fall Shuffle 10

16 January Escape & Protection October Fall Shuffle Brood Rearing July Covey Breakup & Pair-bonding Nesting & Incubation April The Basics of Quail Biology It s all about survival and reproduction, and all aspects very important to having abundant quail populations; with naturally high annual mortality rates, successful reproduction is the key. - Survival o Annual survival typically 5-30% for both hunted and unhunted populations Higher in the South than more northern latitudes Males often have slightly higher survival than females Lower in first year birds o Seasonal and regional differences Spring-Summer (breeding season) typically 13-51% In the South: fall-winter > spring-summer In the North: spring-summer > fall-winter - Reproduction o Covey break-up & Pair-bonding In April coveys break-up and pairs form for mating After mating, pairs may stay together through nesting and brood rearing Originally thought to be monogamous, recent research indicates this is not always the case While some pairbonds are strong, often both male and female mate with other partners o This is necessary for renesting to occur after a failed attempt given the high mortality of quail, and for birds to double clutch o Nesting and Incubation After choosing a nest site, the pair builds the nest from dead plant materials (usually dead grasses, stems, and pine needles) in a slight depression, often with overhanging vegetation/canopy, in fields dominated by grasses ~2 ft tall Egg laying begins within a few days of nest completion, with females usually laying ~13 eggs First nests have larger clutches than later nesting attempts Incubation of nests lasts ~23 days 11

17 Females incubate about 75% of nests, and males the other 25% Birds almost never share in incubation When males incubate the nest, the female may initiate a second nest = double clutching (5% of time) The peak hatching in Florida is typically late June-early July o Nest success Typically only 32-44% of nests hatch Predation and weather are major reasons for nest failure o Mammals, snakes, and fire ants are major nest predators 5-10% of the time predators also kill attending adult Quail will attempt to renest after a failure 2-3 times until successful, dead, or the breeding season has ended (September) 70-80% of the hens that live through the summer produce a successful nest o Brood Survival 30-40% survival through 14 days 15-30% survival through 30 days Predation and weather are major causes of mortality Survival similar to adults after 30 days Intensive adult care for chicks though 30 days, then less through family break-up during the fall shuffle Chicks occasionally abandoned after 30 days Factors Limiting Quail Populations Many factors effect quail survival and reproduction, which limit populations predation, diseases and parasites, starvation and malnutrition, exposure, accidents, and harvest. Many of these factors may not kill many birds directly (such as disease), but weaken them to the point where other factors (such as predation) take more animals they all interact, even harvest. Most importantly, all limiting factors are affected by habitat quality and quantity. It is often the case that poor habitat leads to increased predation mortality, harvests, disease, etc. It is also important to remember that under good habitat conditions, quail have evolved a very high reproductive rate, to balance normal forms of mortality. It s new forms of mortality (such as a new predator like fire ants), abnormally high forms of mortality (including harvest, predation, disease), or reduced reproduction that lead to population declines, and all relate to habitat conditions. 12

18 Reproduction & Survival Predation Harvest Exposure Accidents Disease & Parasites Starvation & Malnutrition Habitat Quality & Quantity! - Predation o Primary cause of death 40-65% due to avian predators Mostly during nesting season and migration Coopers and sharp-shinned hawks important in the South Mammalian predators important during nesting season, and in the North during winter Snakes are important nest predators Fire ants important predators on chicks especially during hatching Ant stings not only kill birds directly, but weaken chicks making them more susceptible to other limiting factors - Diseases and Parasites o Numerous diseases, parasites, and pathogens possible, but not well understood in wild birds o Effects on wild birds probably indirect, making birds more susceptible to other limiting factors o Most found only in pen-raised birds, raising concerns about releases of pen-raised birds in the wild - Starvation and Malnutrition o Can be a significant problem in the North where winter weather may keep birds from feeding or bury foods o Typically more of an indirect problem When food is lacking, birds must forage longer and further from cover increasing their vulnerability to predators and exposure The most important aspect may be the effects on reproduction and chick growth and survival 13

19 Laying hens need a higher protein diet (>24%) and chicks require a diet with 28% protein that can only be obtained by eating insects o Low protein diets can reduce egg production and hatchability significantly, as well as chick size and growth smaller chicks survive less o Insect populations are tied to vegetation/habitat - Exposure o Effects usually indirect making birds more susceptible to other factors, and related to cover Winter cold and snow Summer sun and heat Shrub and other woody plant cover such as palmetto necessary o Weather Wet spring-summer flood nests and kill chicks through hypothermia and drowning Droughts reduce plant cover and insect abundance Snows can cover foods - Harvest o Effects not well understood Not thought to be a major limiting factor Late season harvests may be the biggest problem Bobwhite Habitat When it comes to quail, ultimately it s all about having quality habitat. With good habitat limiting factors will be minimized. Quail live in a wide variety of habitats, from arid rangelands in TX, to agricultural lands in the Midwest, more forested areas of the Northeast, to south Florida range and forest. Therefore, when thinking about quail habitat, it s important not to think about particular species of plants (e.g., bahiagrass), but what the habitat does or can provide in terms of the main habitat components (food, cover, water, and space) in relation to limiting factors such as predation and weather. For example, too much shrub cover in TX (mesquite) is causing the same problem (poor nesting and forage habitat) as too much in Florida (palmetto or hardwoods), and sodforming grasses in KY (fescue) causes the same problem as bahiagrass in Florida poor nesting habitat and foraging habitat. Regardless of where you are, quail have specific requirements. What is Good Quail Habitat? If you have good habitat, you may get 1 bird/acre. A covey can exist on as little as acres, but typically needs at least The key is providing all of the habitat components in close proximity to each other. Quail need tall bunch grass (such as bluestems) near escape and thermal cover (such as palmetto) to nest. This needs to be 14

20 as close as possible to brood rearing and foraging habitat (such as a weed fields) to reduce predation and exposure. How Do We Manage Habitat? To create and maintain quality quail habitat, we must provide small patches of nesting, foraging, and escape/thermal cover mixed among each other, like patches in a quilt often referred to as the Crazy-Quilt. Prescribed fire, grazing, mechanical treatments (such as roller-chopping), and herbicides can all be used to create the Crazy-Quilt. However, no one prescription of these techniques will work everywhere because of differences among sites in soils, vegetation, and climate. 15

21 WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN NORTHERN BOBWHITE HABITAT Roger Wells National Habitat Coordinator Quail Unlimited The Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI) has identified nesting and brood rearing habitat as the critical limiting factor over much of the bobwhite range. In most areas, quail restoration efforts must address one or both of these important habitat components. This paper will offer insights into what to look for in nesting and brood rearing cover plus other important components of bobwhite habitat. Bobwhites construct their nests on the ground, typically in the protection of a clump of grass that they can walk through and yet provides some overhead protection. The nest bowl is made of dry vegetation from the previous year s growth, pine needles, or similar residual vegetation. Both of these characteristics suggest management strategies. Grass or vegetation height must be sufficient to provide quail concealment. Normally, we think of this as being between 6 and 18 inches. Native warm season grasses or other grasses with similar structure having a clump-type growth form are ideal nest cover. Nesting sites with a grass bunch or clump density of no more than 1, 12-inch diameter bunch per 4 square feet (2 feet X 2 feet area) are considered suitable. This allows for sufficient nesting clumps (about 10,000 per acre) and is thin enough to allow the birds to walk through the cover. However, even much thinner nesting cover allows for plenty of nesting site and easier travel. Nesting sites with as little as 250 suitable nest sites per acre (one site per 13 feet) are acceptable. Sufficient residual vegetation must be present for successful reproduction. Prescribed burning of 100% of the vegetation over wide areas may be detrimental to successful nesting. A preferred strategy is to use fire, or other manipulation techniques, in a smaller, patchwork pattern. The greatest mortality of quail occurs in the first few weeks after hatch. This is a critical period which often determines whether the fall population will be a bumper crop or less than desired. Adequate brood rearing cover is critical. Soon after hatching, broods leave the nest and are cared for by one or both adults. Quail chicks have only a few requirements but these are a must! Chicks must have freedom of movement at ground level, overhead concealment and a diverse assortment of green plants or plant parts within feeding height which for a quail chick is only about 2-3 inches. The ground cover must be very open with only 30% to 50% vegetative coverage on the ground. This means that, as much as 70% can be bare ground but still must possess overhead protection. The low-growing canopy of forbs and grasses attracts insects such as beetles, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, ants and other invertebrates, which compose almost the entire diet of quail for the first few weeks of 16

22 life. A mixture of annual grasses and forbs (such as ragweed, partridge pea and lespedezas) provide cover and high protein foods (insects) needed by bobwhite chicks. Also, recently burned grassland sites may provide ideal brood habitat as do old-field or previously tilled sites, weedy strips, legume plantings and small grain and legume mixes. Bobwhites require some type of shrubby/woody cover for loafing, headquarters sites, and protection from summer heat. These areas provide a safe, comfortable resting site between morning and evening feeding periods. They will utilize tall grasses and weed patches but prefer woody plants. Many of these sites become what are known as covey headquarters, which are those select sites around which a covey will center its daily activities. A covey may have several headquarters within its home range that it uses from time to time depending upon the weather and available food. Loafing and headquarters sites may be as small as 100 ft 2 but ideally are at least 400 ft 2 or more. No less than 5% or more than 15% of a covey home range should be in woody cover that is 3 feet to 6 feet tall. Covey headquarters and loafing sites may be existing thickets protected from fire and grazing, felled trees along field borders, or thickets reestablished through plantings utilizing low growing shrubby species. Providing adequate food supplies for bobwhites is important and can range from managing for native foods in the form of annual forb (weed) seeds to manual feeding operations and many combinations or variations in between. Bobwhites are primarily seedeaters, with over 1,000 different plants having been documented in their diet. As much as 75% of the annual adult diet may be composed of food from annual plants. For the manager wanting to maximize quail populations, knowing which seeds provide the most energy to quail is of the utmost importance. Raising or encouraging those plants, which provide a low calorie food source, is not only wasteful but can actually be detrimental to quail during stress periods. On low calorie food sources, quail will not be as fat and not able to withstand winter weather or other stress periods; hens will enter the breeding season in poorer condition, lay fewer eggs and experience more physiological stress. 17

23 A few of the seeds that contain 80% or more of the energy required to maintain a quail in winter are (in decreasing order of importance): Food Item % of Requirement Giant ragweed 99.2 Western ragweed 89.1 Corn 88.7 Soybean 86.7 Sorghum 85.1 Sunflower 83.8 Osage orange 81.6 Dogwood 81.2 Having several of the above seeds available to quail within their home range would offer some degree of insurance against crop failure. I have outlined above a few of the basic components that make up quail habitat, however the positioning or spatial relationship of each of these components on the property is as much or more important than just their presence or absence. Dr. Fred Guthery, prominent quail researcher at Oklahoma State University, promotes the concept of maximizing useable space for bobwhites. By that, he is referring to the need to make every acre (or as nearly so as is practical) on the farm or ranch a useable acre for bobwhites. It is not enough to have nesting cover in one section of the property, quality brood habitat in another and woody cover in another. If all of the bobwhite s requisite habitat components are not found within the normal daily or seasonal home range of the bobwhite nesting pair, brood, or covey, then the population cannot reach its maximum density. The useable space concept also dictates that very large blocks of a single cover type, for example a 160 acre field of ideal nesting cover, are not conducive to maximum population densities because quail seldom utilize anything more than just the outside margins of these large blocks. The center acres are not useable acres. In the big picture, when looking across the farm or ranch, the bobwhite manager must attempt to visualize his property as a quail covey might. In his book Beef, Brush and Bobwhites Quail Management in Cattle Country, Dr. Guthery has an opening 2 paragraphs which rather sums up how the quail manager must look at habitat. He says: Imagine you re 6 inches tall, weigh 6 ounces and would rather walk than fly. Your view of the world would change. A knee-high shrub would become a small tree, a dense stand of bluestem would become an impassible jungle, and a 1-mile jog would telescope into a half marathon. You re beginning to see through the eyes of a bobwhite. These are delicate, immobile birds that require a variety of habitats. They re largely concerned with living space from ground level to a height of about 3 feet on areas no larger than 20 city 18

24 blocks. Therefore, managers must create crazy-quilt patterns of cover on small areas; patches in the quilt must fulfill seasonal and annual cover needs. As an example, most quail managers would consider a population density of 1 quail per acre across the entirety of a managed property to be a high population level. The average covey size is 11 birds, meaning that this covey would require 11 acres of ideal habitat to exist. Understand, of course, that a quail covey will utilize far more acres than this but also that the home ranges of several coveys typically overlap. Now, very few people manage their lands on 11-acre units, but many do attempt to manage on 30 to 40 acre units, which, at the densities quoted above might hold 3-4 coveys of birds. At these densities coveys would theoretically, if evenly spaced, be disbursed every 230 yards. Meaning that when hunting you would encounter a second covey before you even had the chance to work the singles of the first covey. In order to achieve quail densities at these levels every 40-acre unit on the farm or ranch must contain all of the necessary annual habitat components for that population of birds. There must be adequate nesting cover, brood habitat, summer and winter woody shelter, protected travel lanes, foods (animal and vegetable), roost sites, water availability, etc. in every 40-acre tract. It is not enough just to have these components present in widely separated locations of the property; they must be within the normal home range of the nesting pair or the fall and winter covey. Everyone would like to see more bobwhites on their property. Accomplishing that objective often takes a lot more work and effort than many folks imagine. Bobwhite management involves active management as opposed to passive management for some other species. In most areas, successful bobwhite management requires continued use of management strategies that disturb the soil, induce vegetative diversity, set back plant succession, and provide for all of the life needs of a species that may spend most of its life in an area of just a few dozen acres. To be successful and maximize the population potential, you must employ disturbance, diversity and dedication and do it all in a small patchwork design across the property. 19

25 IMPORTANT PLANT SPECIES FOR QUAIL AND CATTLE IN SOUTH FLORIDA James A. Martin Graduate Research Assistant Tall Timbers Research Station and University of Georgia Bobwhite quail are one of the widest ranging game birds in the world. Their distribution overlaps with many habitat types from oak savannas to short-grass prairie, right on down to the rangelands of south Florida. They depend on an infinite number of plants to survive and reproduce. Too much emphasis has been placed on a handful of species when referring to quail management, and often food value is the only factor mentioned. The food value of a plant is only one habitat requirement. Cover for nesting and brooding are equally important requirements. In addition, the ability of a plant to attract insects and the growth structure of the plant are important. Taking the abovementioned information into account, there are a number of grass and forb (broad-leaved herbaceous plants) species in south Florida that can be used as indicators of habitat quality for bobwhites. In addition, several of these grasses also dictate the quality of rangelands for cattle. There is overlap between good quail range and good cattle range, however, differences do exist. The introduction of one species of grass has changed Florida s landscape forever, and that is bahiagrass. Bahia was introduced in the early 1900s as a pasture grass, and now covers approximately 3 million acres of what was once native rangeland. It has become a commodity in the form of sod, and is still readily planted for forage. Bahia makes decent cattle forage, however, under some environmental conditions (e.g., heavy rainfall) it will become of poor quality. Bahiagrass is not a component of quality bobwhite habitat. The growth structure of bahiagrass does not allow bobwhites access to bare soil that is needed for gleaning seed and dusting. The structure does not provide cover during heavy rainfalls and high temperatures; these things are highly detrimental to quail chicks. The competitive nature of bahiagrass creates a monoculture, and bobwhites need a diverse plant community. Ranchers with bahiagrass pastures have limited management options. The primary management scheme would include rotational grazing, which allows other species of grasses and forbs to become present in pastures. The ditch banks and other odd areas of the ranch can be managed for bobwhite habitat by strip disking, rollerchopping, and herbicide application. A good rule of thumb would be to manage 7-10% of the area as bobwhite habitat. A second management scheme would be to eradicate bahiagrass and create a completely different habitat type. This option is the best for bobwhites, but not economically feasible for most ranchers. Unlike improved pastures or tame acres, native rangeland sites have numerous plant species that indicate quality bobwhite habitat and cattle forage. Species such as yellow indiangrass, lopsided indiangrass, eastern gamma grass, chalky bluestem, creeping bluestem, slough grasses, and switchgrass are highly 20

26 preferred by cattle and are very important to the habitat requirements of bobwhites. This is where the problem exists. The high preference level of these plants by cattle and the critical importance they have to bobwhites causes a tug of war between bobwhites and cattle. As you can imagine, cattle win every time they are allowed. However, the land manager has the ability to regulate or limit the amount of important grasses the cattle are allowed to consume. The key to managing sites with these grasses is rotational grazing and proper rest after fire or soil disturbance. Managing range in a manner that provides sufficient cover for bobwhites throughout the year is paramount. These grasses, with the exception of switchgrass, are not important food producers, but are important for nesting sites and brood rearing. Forbs are equally if not more important to bobwhites than grass species. This group of plants provides cover, insect production, and plant foods for bobwhites throughout the year. Legumes do not seem to be as important in south Florida as they are other parts of the bobwhite s range. This is most likely a product of their low abundance. In vegetation surveys completed by field crews, a very small percentage of rangeland species composition were legumes (<1%). However, species such as partridge pea, milk pea, and beggarweed can add great value to bobwhite habitat and need to be promoted as much as possible. Other forbs, such as queen s delight, ragweed, blackberries, doveweeds and violet species, are very important food sources and insect attracting plants for bobwhites. These plants are often overlooked as important to bobwhites. Most forb species respond to disturbances in a positive manner. Fire, mechanical treatment, and light-moderate cattle grazing can promote these species, but too much of any of these will cause most forbs to be eliminated from the habitat. Historically, many of the forb species have been viewed as weeds by ranchers and farmers, but to bobwhites no such word exists. The stigma of having these plants present in pastures and rangelands often persuades land managers to control them via herbicide application or mowing. Those interested in having huntable quail populations should refrain from eliminating these plants from the landscape. Bobwhites have four main habitat requirements that need to be fulfilled within their homerange; food resources, nesting cover, brood rearing cover, and escape cover. In south Florida I would add a fifth requirement, inclement weather cover. This type of cover is needed during heavy downpours and high temperatures. Plant species have to provide all of these requirements. Unlike cattle; bobwhites have no rancher to provide a safety net during hard times. As quail managers, we have to manage habitat to assure all necessities are met 365 days of the year, if habitat fails on any given day, that will be Mr. Bob s last. 21

27 Important Bobwhite Plants of South Florida Poor Quality Fair Quality Good Quality Bahiagrass Wax myrtle Creeping bluestem Bermudagrass Maidencane spp. Switchgrass Stargrass Eastern gamma grass Lopsided indiangrass Limpograss Wiregrass Yellow indiangrass Carpetgrass Saw palmetto Beggarweeds Cogongrass Queens delight Ragweed Tropical soda apple Doveweeds (Croton spp.) Blackberries Smutgrass Gallberry Panic grasses Most introduced forages Runner oak Slough grasses Puffball fungus Partridge pea Love vine Longleaf pine Hypoxis spp. Chalky bluestem Slash pine Sesbania Bay trees Violet spp. **Species bolded are also high quality forage for cattle 22

28 Average Crude Protein (CP) and Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) for Selected Florida Forage Types Crude Protein (%) Stargrass* Digitgrass (Pangola)* Bermudagrass (Coastal)* Bahiagrass (Pensacola)* Limpograss* Florida Range Grasses Average CP Switchgrass Maidencane Lopsided Indiangrass Eastern Gamagrass Wiregrass Range Creeping Bluestem Chalky Bluestem Average TDN TDN (%) Figure 2. Average crude protein and total digestible nutrients for selected Florida forage types. * These forages were fertilized. They were also analyzed during the growing season. The range grasses were analyzed at the end of growing season. Special thanks to Mr. Pete Deal of USDA-NRCS for compiling this data 23

29 USE OF FIRE TO MANAGE WILDLIFE HABITAT: A CASE STUDY ON THE BABCOCK/WEBB WMA Mike Kemmerer Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission The Babcock/Webb Wildlife Management Area (BWWMA) is a 65,775-acre wildlife management area located in Charlotte County, Florida. The area also encompasses a separate area located in southern Charlotte and northern Lee Counties designated as the Charlotte Harbor Flatwoods under the CARL program, but named the Yucca Pens Unit within the management area system. The Yucca Pens currently encompasses approximately 14,500 acres. Both areas are comprised primarily of south Florida pine flatwoods habitat. Cost estimates for the prescribed burning project are approximately $1.30/acre. WILDLIFE SPECIES The BWWMA is one of the few areas in which there is a managed species on the area. The managed species on the area is the bobwhite quail. Several other species are managed on the area including white-tailed deer, hogs, and red-cockaded woodpeckers. Although these species appear to be quite different in their requirements, our information indicates they all benefit from frequent fire and in some species, such as red-cockaded woodpeckers, it is required. The Yucca Pens is managed for all of the above species with no emphasis given to any particular one. SURROUNDING AREAS The BWWMA and Yucca Pens are increasingly being surrounded by development and crowded transportation corridors. Within 15 miles, human populations have increased, with the Fort Myers area having 250, ,000 people and the Punta Gorda area having increased to approximately 130,000 to 160,000 people. To the northwest, the Venice-Sarasota area has approximately 250,000 people. Several major highways also surround the areas. The BWWMA has county road 74 to the north, state road 31 to the east, and I-75 to the west. The Yucca Pens is no different, with U.S. 41 and I-75 to the east and Burnt Store road to the west. An additional consideration for the Yucca Pens is the largest marina in southwest Florida, Burnt Store Marina. This marina houses a great number of sailboats valued at $500,000. HABITAT The BWWMA and Yucca Pens are primarily south Florida flatwoods. The area was clear-cut in the late 1920 s-early 1930 s. The resulting mature pine trees on the areas are decedents from cull trees remaining after the clear-cuts. The pines from this area were shipped to Africa for use in the diamond mines because their high rosin content made them resistant to rot under wet conditions. 24

30 The pine density in these areas varies from thin to fairly high basal area/acre. The area is interspersed with seasonal to permanent ponds, which are interconnected. Between these two extremes, are wet and dry prairies with scattered palmetto. The Yucca Pens has followed the same land use history. The primary habitat differences between the Yucca Pens and the BWWMA is that Yucca Pens is wetter due to cap rock being closer to the surface and cypress strand habitat being present. FIRE METHODOLOGIES Babcock/Webb The BWWMA is burned on a high frequency, with fire returning to any area on a one to two year rotation. The area, in most instances, is burned every year, however, if an area does not burn or areas within the burn block do not burn, they are not attempted again that year. The Yucca Pens, for the most part, is currently being burned for the first time. The burn return rate in the Yucca Pens appears to be two to four years due to the increased water held on the area during the summer, and shallow soils. The firing techniques utilized on both areas include backfires, flank fires, and head fires. All fires are ignited using aerial ignition, trucks with a burn tank, traditional fire pots, and/or 4-wheelers with burn tanks. The frequent fire regime not only benefits the species listed above, but also has the added benefits of cool fires and reduced smoke emissions. While burning the light fuel, the smoke generated from a 2,000-acre fire is barely visible 5 miles from the burn area. This dramatically reduces smoke impacts. Post fire, the palmetto fronds remain intact and green on the plant, exhibiting the fire s coolness. The increased burning frequency also easily creates a mosaic of burned and unburned areas. The mosaic variation in a single burn block can be as much as four-years difference. The acreage burned on the BWWMA during the fire season was 48,377 acres, while the season resulted in 48,921 acres. Yucca Pens Unit The Yucca Pens has required new strategies to accomplish our prescribed fire goals. Although the habitat is similar, the rock layer being close to the surface produces conditions of extreme wetness or dryness with little time between. The increased moisture during the summer reduces plant biomass production due to stress. These conditions create a situation in which the prescribed fire rotation is approximately two to four years. The adjacent highways and populations have created a difficult situation for smoke management. Flank fires are the preferred fire because the heat generated is enough to the lift the smoke quickly, but not hot enough to kill the pine trees. For this method to be successful, it is necessary to have dispersion values in or above the 50 25

31 range. Surface winds in the 8-12 mph range are preferred to allow the smoke time to rise to the mixing height quickly before moving away from the burn area. The acreage attempted to be burned on the Yucca Pens Unit during the fire season was 889 acres, while the season resulted in 1,910 acres. Our fire management program on the Babcock/Webb WMA has dramatically improved the habitat for quail and other wildlife. To see these effects first hand, visit the WMA. 26

32 MECHANICAL TREATMENTS FOR QUAIL HABITAT IMPROVEMENT George Tanner Professor Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation University of Florida What Types of Mechanical Treatments Are Available? Mechanical treatments typically use some type of tractor and pull behind attachments (mower, disk, roller chopper). The size of mowers, disks and roller choppers vary, thus making the horsepower requirement of the tractor vary accordingly. If you are not familiar with gauging tractor horsepower requirements, I recommend you contact dealer representatives of the various implements to get this information. A web plow is a V-shaped blade that is typically positioned under a road grader and inserted into the ground about 6 to 8 inches deep, and is another type of mechanical treatment. Why Use Mechanical Treatments? While quail eat fruits of some woody plants (saw palmetto, blue berries), much of their diet consists of seeds and fruits of herbaceous plants (grasses, sedges, weeds and legumes) and on insects that are attracted to herbaceous plants. Prolific woody plant growth will compete for sunlight, water, and nutrients with herbaceous plants and limit their productivity. Mechanical treatments have been shown to reduce woody plant growth for varying periods of time and increase herbaceous plant growth. Plant responses to the soil disturbance following mechanical treatments are a major management objective. Mechanical treatments should not be used as a substitute for prescribed fire. Herbaceous plant growth and seed production will respond best to a combination of mechanical and fire treatments. Do I Need To Use Mechanical Treatments On My Property? The decision to use mechanical treatments should be based on the overall extent of woody shrub on you property. In south central Florida, the most common woody shrubs are saw palmetto (palmetto), gall berry, scrub oaks, and fetterbush. These shrubs occupy a midstory of canopy between ground cover of grasses and forbs below and typically pines above. On native range pastures where cover of woody plants exceeds 30-40%, mechanical treatments should be considered in addition to prescribed fire treatments. What Does Roller Chopping Do To The Habitat? A roller chopper is a metal drum that has a series of sharpened blades attached. These drums can be used singly or in a set of two, with one drum positioned in front of the other and often oriented at an angle to one another. Water may be added to the drums to provide additional weight. As the drums are pulled along, the vegetation is 27

33 both crushed and cut by the apparatus. Above and below ground portions of plants may be cut by the blades depending upon the physical structure of the vegetation. Drum choppers pulled over bare ground will turn the soil. Repeated passes of choppers over the same piece of ground, called double chopping, will result in additional cutting of the vegetation and additional disturbance to the soil. Some woody plants may be killed by roller chopping but many will just be defoliated for several months until resprouting begins. Woody plant canopy cover can be reduced by about 40-60% for 3 to 5 years, depending upon species. The crushing effects will also reduce shrub height for several years. If your management objective is to remove most of the palmetto quickly (within a couple years), then you will need to retreat the site annually until the palmetto are root-killed. This level of treatment will result in severe soil disturbance, so potential problems of soil erosion should be considered when choosing the sites to receive palmetto removal. Some existing herbaceous plants may be killed where soil disturbance is high. On the other hand, most herbaceous plants, especially sod-forming species, will be stimulated to increase growth. Also, soil disturbance will promote germination of seeds lying dormant in the soil. Roller choppers come in light ( HP requirement), medium ( HP requirement), and big ( HP requirement) drum sizes and in several blade arrangements (solid straight bar and spiraled bar segments). Most saw palmetto woods pastures can be chopped with the medium-sized choppers. Land managers at Myakka River State Park have experienced increased reduction in palmetto cover and plant density with the spiraled chopper design. What Does Mowing Do To Quail Habitat? Mowing defoliates all vegetation small enough to be cut by the blades at the height set on the tractor; few, if any, woody plants are killed by this treatment. Importantly, almost no soil disturbance occurs, often resulting in reduced amounts of seed producing plants regenerating on the treated sites. Shrubs begin resprouting soon following treatment with recovery of their canopy cover within a year, although shrub height regrowth may take longer. Given the high rpms of the mower blades, I expect maintenance costs of mowers would be more than for roller choppers or disks. What Does Disking Do To Quail Habitat? Discing can be used on relatively sparsely growing shrubs and low growing palmetto. However, much care would need to be taken not to damage the disks, especially if they were too small for the vegetation. Similarly, disking can be used in large, monotypic areas of grass, to stimulate weed growth and diversify the plant community. Discing is mostly used for establishment and maintenance of fire lanes. Regardless of where disking is done, annual plants that produce seeds and some 28

34 perennial grasses with high seed productivity, such as low panicums, and many weeds regenerate in disked areas, providing excellent foraging areas for adult quail and bugging areas for their chicks. What Does Web Plowing Do To Quail Habitat? Web plowing is more effective in root-killing palmetto than roller chopping. The V-shaped blade runs parallel to the soil surface and severs palmetto rhizomes and roots. Disturbance to the soil surface is not severe, so stimulation of herbaceous species growth is not as pronounced as with roller chopping or disking. What Time Of Year Should I Use Mechanical Treatments? Avoid treating large areas in March, April, May and June if at all possible. Ground nesting birds, including quail, nest during this time. If you must treat during nesting season, leave patches of untreated vegetation (size and shape to be discussed later) as many of the birds will renest. It is important to have good soil moisture conditions at the time of treatment. Research has shown poor reduction of shrub cover when roller chopping was done during a drought. Excessive rainfall immediately following roller chopping may cause a 2 to 3 month delay in regrowth of herbaceous vegetation. Use prescribed fire in advance of using mechanical treatments so that tree stumps can be avoided. Striking tree stumps can be very damaging to the equipment and to the operator. Marking stump locations with a section of PVC pipe also will reduce the probability of striking them with your equipment in the situation where you cannot mechanically treat burned sites before vegetation regrowth. Soil disturbance resulting from mechanical treatments during different seasons of the year will affect the types of plant species reestablishing in the disturbed areas. Some experimentation on your own property may be needed to determine the time of year you need to disk to provide the best composition of seed and insect producing plants. How Often Should I Use Mechanical Treatments? Research indicates Florida s pine/palmetto flatwoods habitats should be roller chopped on a 6-year cycle (and burned at least on a 3-year cycle for quail). Although there are no studies on shrub responses to disking, a similar return interval to chopping should work. Fire lanes should be disked prior to prescribed burning and possibly more often to stimulate seed production from annual plant species. Mowing will occur mostly in grassy areas and the frequency will be related to the rapidity of shrub encroachment and growth. 29

35 What Is the Best Spatial Pattern For Mechanical Treatments? Since the home range of a quail is relatively small (30-40 acres) and they need a variety of cover types (grassy-weedy areas for bugs and seeds, mixed weeds and shrubs with bare ground for scratching seeds from the soil and protection from aerial predators, and heavier shrubs/trees for winter refuge), size and physical arrangement of habitat patches is very important. About 25 % of a pasture should not receive any mechanical treatments. However, through time, some of these untreated patches may be mechanically treated when woody plant growth on previously-treated patches recovers and can be protected. Patch arrangement will vary from pasture to pasture as land forms vary. For example, flatwoods ponds often occupy 10-15% of the land area, and their borders should be protected from mechanical treatments to provide cover for most wildlife. Strip or checker-board patterns may be used. Treated strips of about 200 feet wide separated by 60 feet of untreated shrubs are a suggestion. A checkerboard pattern of alternating treated and untreated strips will result in blocks of land receiving no treatment, single mechanical treatment and double mechanical treatment. Again, treatment strips should be about 200 feet wide. How Much Do Mechanical Treatments Cost? Cost of contracting mechanical treatments can vary according to total area of treatment, complexity of treatment pattern, and ever escalating fuel prices. For summer 2005, cost of roller chopping and disking range from $40 to $65/acre. Mowing cost per acre should be somewhat less. To obtain prices of purchasing your own equipment, please contact your local distributors or manufactures for up-to-date prices. Web plows typically require a road grader (there were some pull behind versions made in the past), and their availability is limited. While web plowing is very efficient at killing palmetto, the per acre costs probably are quite high in comparison to other mechanical treatments. 30

36 QUAIL HABITAT MANAGEMENT USING HERBICIDES Andy Pierce Area Manager Red River Specialties, Inc. I. Where Do I Start? a. Determine species that need to be controlled. b. Determine species that need to be left intact. c. Realize that when you remove one species, another will take its place. Determine which species you want to return grass, forage plants. d. Pick the herbicide that will best meet these goals. e. Pick the application method that will utilize the herbicide most effectively to achieve your goals. II. Choosing a Herbicide a. Most herbicides available today are very safe not persistent in the soil or toxic to animals but levels of toxicity vary with rate and application method. FOLLOW THE LABEL! b. For most products, you do not need any application licenses. c. Many herbicides will control one particular species: however, they may each have very different effects on non-target vegetation. d. There may be several different herbicides that will fit a particular need, but costs may vary widely. e. Some herbicides will be much more effective depending on method of application. III. Broadcast Application a. Can be cheapest way to cover large areas, especially areas with dense hardwoods or where invasive species have developed a monoculture. b. Very effective as a grass release. There are several herbicides that target broadleaf weeds and can leave native grasses. c. Costs vary widely based on target vegetation and application method. d. Every plant in treatment area will be affected negatively or positively. IV. Foliar Application a. The foliage of each plant is individually treated. b. Gives the ability to treat individual stems and not affect surrounding vegetation. c. Probably the best method for treating plants like palmetto (although full control requires integration of fire and mechanical treatments. d. Can be difficult is some targets are difficult to get to or if they are too tall to effectively treat foliage. e. Labor can be very expensive and time consuming. There is also a moderate amount of herbicide usage. 31

37 V. Herbicide Injection a. Herbicide (either in a solution or undiluted) is injected into single tree stems. b. Can either make a hack with axe or machete and spray herbicide in cut or there are commercially available units that make the cut and injection in one strike. c. Very little herbicide is used (with Arsenal AC, 1ml per 3 in diameter of tree), however, labor costs are very high every tree must be touched. VI. Basal Bark Treatment a. The bottom 18 in of stem is sprayed with a mixture of Garlon 4 and diesel fuel or basal oil mixture (usu % Garlon 4). Also available as a ready-to-use product called Pathfinder II. b. Controls small to medium sized hardwoods and shrubs well, not as effective on some oaks and larger trees. c. Moderate amount of herbicide used as well as moderate amount of labor. VII. Cut Stump Treatment a. After a stem has been cut, herbicide or solution is applied to the fresh surface of the stump most effective if done within a couple of hours. b. Provides excellent insurance against resprouting, but it does require that target tree be cut down. c. Uses little herbicide, but very labor intensive. VIII. Conclusions a. An herbicide application is a tool that may be best used in conjunction with other tools fire, chopping, tilling. b. While we may control the population of a target species that is up and growing, there is seed stock in the soil that may resprout. A follow-up treatment may be necessary. c. Get professional help with habitat and herbicide management. 32

38 COWS AND QUAIL: CAN THEY COEXIST? Bill Giuliano 1, Jim Selph 2, Emma Willcox 3, and Adam Willcox 3 1 Assistant Professor and Wildlife Extension Specialist 2 Extension Agent IV, Livestock and Forages, DeSoto County 3 Graduate Research Assistants Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Florida Cooperative Extension Service University of Florida Like many agricultural practices, livestock grazing is often blamed for the loss and degradation of wildlife habitat, including that of bobwhite quail. However, in many rangeland systems this is not necessarily the case, and grazing can actually be an effective habitat management tool. Fred Guthery, a Texas-Oklahoma quail biologist of more than 30 years, summed it up best when he said: No habitat management tool is more powerful than the cow. Give her a little salt, supplement and water, and she manages millions of acres of bobwhite cover. Like any powerful tool, she can be harmful or helpful, depending on how she s applied. Applied properly, grazing can create and maintain quality quail habitat, which includes small patches of nesting, foraging, and escape cover mixed among each other, like patches in a quilt. This is often referred to as the Crazy-Quilt and is necessary for healthy and abundant quail populations. Cows potentially affect quail both directly and indirectly. Direct affects include the disturbance of birds while feeding, nesting, resting, etc., and the trampling of nests and individuals. Such direct effects typically only occur at very high stocking rates. More important are the indirect affects that cows and pasture management have on quail, through effects on the plant community. Grazing animals can change both plant species composition and structure, which affects the availability and accessibility of food and cover for quail in both native and improved or tame grass pastures. Native Range Whether its pine flatwoods, palm cabbage-wiregrass prairie, or any other type of rangeland system, as grazing intensity changes, so does the plant community. From a cattle forage standpoint, native range in a pristine state, such as one with natural fire regimes and little or no livestock gazing, is considered excellent. Highly desirable and palatable native grasses, collectively called decreasers because they tend to decrease in abundance and distribution as grazing intensity increases, typically dominate these systems. This includes creeping and chalky bluestems, lopsided indiangrass, switchgrass, and maidencane. Most rangeland systems in this condition typically have relatively few species of forbs (broad-leaved herbaceous plants) and sparsely-distributed, low-growing shrubs. Some Florida rangelands are an exception to this general rule, because the dominant or co-dominant native grass is wiregrass, which may dominate the range in the absence of grazing, and maintains or increases its dominance with moderate levels of grazing. While these types of areas 33

39 provide excellent nesting cover for quail, they are poor-fair in the foraging and escape cover necessary for abundant quail populations. As grazing intensity increases, the preferred native grasses continue to decrease in abundance, while less palatable grasses (such as broomsedge and bottlebrush threeawn) and forbs, called increasers, become more abundant and widely distributed. Often thought of as weeds, many of these species produce and attract abundant and nutritious quail foods, such as seeds and insects, while providing excellent foraging cover and some escape cover. Certain legumes are particularly valuable increasers for quail because of their high protein content and associated insect community. The increased soil disturbance from having more livestock hooves in an area may also improve soil conditions for these weed species, accelerating their establishment. In addition to increases in these weeds, shrubs and woody vegetation (such as palmetto), known as invaders, begin to proliferate as competition from native grasses is reduced by grazing. These types of plants are valuable for quail as escape cover from both predators and heat. Livestock grazing also reduces grass density and biomass in the area, improving conditions for quail. Dense vegetation, particularly at the ground level, can inhibit quail movements and the quality of nest sites. Moderate levels of grazing typically lead to this more open and diverse rangeland community that produces the best quail habitat, and is considered good-fair condition, in terms of livestock forage. When grazing intensity is heavy, livestock often wipeout the preferred native grasses (decreasers). As cattle turn to the less palatable grasses and weeds (increasers), including wiregrass and broomsedge, these also decline in prominence. And in the absence of fire and other control treatments, shrubs and woody vegetation (invaders) rapidly spread in an area. While this situation provides excellent escape cover conditions and fair-good forage conditions for quail, it provides little or no nesting habitat and will result in low quail numbers. Lacking most grasses, these areas are also poor in forage condition for livestock. Alternatively, heavy grazing, particularly when invaders are being controlled, may lead to the typical golf course effect, providing little forage for cattle and no food or cover for quail. Unfortunately for quail, many of our rangelands in Florida are in either excellent or poor forage condition. Excellent forage condition comes about through intensive range management (for example, overly frequent prescribed fire, herbicide use, and mechanical treatments), or lack of grazing. Poor conditions result from overgrazing and lack of fire. The ideal situation for quail exists with fair-good range conditions for cows, because this creates an environment that includes all that a bobwhite needs: food and foraging cover, nesting cover, and escape cover, all in small patches interspersed with each other the Crazy Quilt. The further we get from both excellent and poor range conditions for cows, the more quail the area can support. While only a moderate stocking rate can be applied and still maintain these ideal habitat conditions for quail, it does have advantages from a livestock management perspective. By maintaining moderate stocking rates and good-fair range conditions for livestock, ranchers avoid having to intensively manage the range. To sustain the heavy grazing necessary at high stocking rates, fertilization, prescribed fire, and mechanical treatments are 34

40 necessary to maintain forage grasses and remove the less palatable increasers and invaders. In addition, healthy quail populations, obtained only with moderate grazing intensities, can lead to increased hunting opportunities and the possibility of deriving income from quail harvests. Improved or Tame Grass Pasture Much of the native rangeland in Florida is being or has been Improved. This may increase forage production for cows, but makes most of the area unsuitable for quail. Typically, improvements include the eradication of native grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees, and the establishment of large monocultures of exotic forage grasses such as bahiagrass. While some of these grasses, including bahiagrass, produce abundant seed that is used by quail, no single food can satisfy the nutritional requirements of bobwhites. Diverse plant communities produce a greater abundance and diversity of plant foods, as well as attracting a greater abundance and diversity of animal (insect) foods for quail. The eradication of forbs, shrubs, and trees also removes most of the foraging and escape cover for bobwhites. If the grass used in improved pasture is a bunchgrass that is similar to our native grasses in structure, it may provide good nesting habitat. However, given that foraging and escape cover are usually not present in the pasture, it will receive little or no use because the birds prefer to nest within a short walk or flight from feeding and escape cover. Most quail use of improved pastures occurs on the periphery, where birds have access to food and cover, reducing the total useable habitat for bobwhites and the overall number of birds on a ranch. How Do You Get There Unfortunately, there is no magic stocking rate or number of animal units that will always provide moderate grazing intensity and the Crazy-Quilt that quail need. How many animals are needed, how long they graze, how often are in an area and at what time of year, are all factors that need to be considered. And all will change from one pasture to the next and even within large pastures due to differences in soil conditions, vegetation, and climate. This is further complicated by other management activities that affect plant communities including prescribed fire, mechanical treatments such as roller-chopping, herbicide applications, and fertilization. All is not lost, however, as most experienced range managers can predict grazing impacts of various stocking rates given normal conditions. Although very little is known about the impacts of grazing on quail in Florida, studies of quail in other rangelands systems and on similar species within the State tell us several things: - All other things being equal, rotational grazing is better for quail than continuous grazing. In pastures without cows, birds and nests will not be disturbed, and vegetation will have a chance to grow, providing better food and cover. Even a simple system, where animals are rotated off native range prior to nesting season (early spring) and put on tame grass pasture, will benefit quail. Except for the periphery, little or no nesting occurs in large tame grass pastures, so putting cows in these areas has little impact on quail populations. However, even on poor native range, removing cows will reduce 35

41 disturbance and allow vegetation to regrow, providing foraging, escape, and nesting cover. - Higher site productivity means that more animal units can be supported while keeping grazing intensity and impacts moderate. So, better soils and climate can mean more cows and quail. - Shorter duration grazing on an area is better for bobwhites because it minimizes the time cows are disturbing birds and allows more time for plant growth. - The less often an area is grazed, the better it is for quail because it minimizes the frequency of cows disturbing birds and allows for more time of plant growth. - Timing grazing in an area to avoid the nesting season, allow plant regrowth prior to nesting, and produce seeds for food can benefit bobwhites. Other practices can also be employed to enhance pastures, both native and tame, for quail: - Mobile Heavy Spot Grazing Either temporarily fencing livestock in small areas, or attracting dense concentrations of animals to water sources, salt, supplements, hay, or recently burned areas will lead to intense disturbance of the soil, overgrazing, and excessive nutrient (feces) inputs. If done for at least a couple of months, this will greatly defoliate and often kill all the vegetation in the area, including most tame forages such as bahiagrass. When this intense disturbance is removed, an abundant and diverse weed patch will form providing excellent foraging habitat as well as nesting and escape cover. By moving such sites around large pastures, excellent bobwhite habitat can be created. - Strip Improvements Rather than converting (improving) entire pastures from native to tame pasture, improve yard wide strips that alternate with native range. This will create more edge on tame sites, the only areas typically used by birds, and leave more native range in the area, which is better quail habitat. - Exclosures Temporarily fence small areas within large pastures to exclude livestock. Abundant and diverse weed patches will form in the areas, providing excellent foraging habitat as well as nesting and escape cover. By moving such sites around large pastures, excellent bobwhite habitat can be created. - Fences Let the weedy and shrubby vegetation grow along pasture boundary fences. Abundant and diverse weeds and shrubs will form in the areas, providing excellent foraging habitat as well as nesting and escape cover. These areas will also serve as protected, travel corridors that allow quail to safely move between different parts of the ranch. All of these practices will increase the plant species and structural diversity, and patch interspersion in pastures, making a more quilt-like community. Ironically, improving pasture for cows through intensive management and converting native vegetation to tame grass pasture is not an improvement at all for the 36

42 bobwhite. However, there are techniques, even for tame grass pasture, that benefit quail and will allow cows and quail to coexist the key is to create and maintain a Crazy-Quilt! 37

43 FOOD PLOTS AND AGRICULTURAL CROPS: USE AND BENEFIT FOR QUAIL Nigel Morris Southwest Florida Chapter of Quail Unlimited A statement in the Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative reads state wildlife agency programs that have long promoted inefficient quail habitat practices such as food plots could be re-directed to more beneficial management actions. A Mississippi wildlife brochure on food plots opens with this observation: The merit of wildlife plantings is debatable. Against that backdrop you might be asking yourselves why would we include this talk in the program? The answer in south Florida is two fold. First, the sandy soils that are almost universal in this area are inherently infertile and therefore, we should be able to produce more quail by providing more food. Second, and perhaps more important, establishing food plots provides a means of addressing partial conversion of the all too prevalent improved or tame grass pastures to more favorable quail habitat. Numerous studies, including some here in Florida by the Tall Timbers Research Station, suggest that providing supplemental food for quail can enhance populations. Such supplementation programs include the provision of feed at feeders, spreading feed through adequate cover, the establishment of food plots, and leaving certain agricultural crops unharvested in the field. There is much debate as to whether providing feed at feeders helps or hurts quail populations, and such methods are expensive. Better results have been obtained by spreading feed such as milo through foraging cover. And, I ve heard it said that spreading feed versus establishing food plots is a more cost effective means of enhancing quail populations. However, in many parts of south Florida, access for the purpose of spreading feed can be problematic in the rainy season. Therefore, I believe that food plot establishment and leaving crops unharvested as food sources are worthwhile undertakings. PLOT LAYOUT The classic food plot design for quail is long and thin, ⅛ to ¼ acre in size, dotted around the landscape. This often constitutes an attractant food plot approach that brings wildlife to a specific location, often to facilitate the harvesting of animals, but does not necessarily supply a long term or dependable food source. An alternative approach is the foraging plot that will provide a long term, more dependable food source. I strongly recommend the latter approach if you are going to embark on a food plot program. In flatwoods or large areas of tame grass pasture, long, continuous food plots or strips should be developed. This is the approach taken on much of the Webb Wildlife Management area that used to have the more classic style of 38

44 food plot layout. After conversion in 1988 to the strip layout, I observed a noticeable improvement in covey finds. The SW Florida Chapter of Quail Unlimited (SWFLQU), having also observed this phenomenon, helped fund expansion of the program to other areas in 1992 and SWFLQU hopes to help fund the whole area being developed this way. This is an appropriate way to develop a food source for quail for an area in which bi-weekly spreading of food is not practicable. Research suggests that the amount of land devoted to food plots should exceed 1% of the entire area to improve the wildlife habitat. On the Webb, the following statistics pertain to the areas that have been planted with continuous plots, and it does seem to have helped quail. Site Size of Site (acres) Size of Food Plot (acres) Proportion of Site in Food Plot (%) Field Trial Area 7, Area A 4, Area B 3, Area C 4, Area D 3, An effective application of continuous food plots is in large improved or tame grass pastures. By breaking up these monocultures with wide, continuous food plots, food, cover, and edge habitats are provided, enhancing the area for quail. ESTABLISHMENT In most situations in south Florida, opening new ground for food plots can be done with a heavy disk, or if the breaking of a thick palmetto cover is necessary, other means such as roller chopping or even palmetto ploughs may be used, but a heavy disk is usually adequate. This should be followed by 2 to 4 more diskings to make a good seed bed. After the 2 nd disking of new ground, lime or dolomite should be applied to raise the ph since most all flatwood soils are acidic. Establishing food plots in bahia pastures may require less ph adjustment since prior establishment of the pasture would have been preceded by liming. Soil analysis should be used to determine the correct application rate that will generally be in the range of 1 to 3 tons per acre. Some of the continuing food plots in the Webb were established by 1 to 2 passes of a heavy disk followed by no further treatment for a year to allow palmetto rhizomes to begin to breakdown before being disked again. If time is of the essence however, more intense disking or other treatment maybe employed to achieve a desirable end result. 39

45 PLANTING Plant Selection What to plant (or not to plant). Ideally food plots should provide an abundance of insect life early in the season to benefit chicks. They should then progress to a prolonged production of seed for the fall and winter months. There are a host of plants that are recommended for planting to benefit quail. These include: Legumes Partridge pea Vetches Lespedezas Peas Beggarweed Hairy Indigo Aeschynomene Sesbanias Clovers Beans Others Oats Millets Soybeans Corn Wheat Sunflower Barley Sorghums Again, an ideal food plot should contain a mix of plants with different maturity dates to prolong the supply of food. Also structure, in the form of good overhead cover and open below, is desirable. Now the realty check: Many of the plant groups shown on the slide won t tolerate wet feet and if you re going to attempt to grow something in the south Florida flatwoods, it had better be able to grow well in wet and dry conditions. In other words, any plants that would fall into the categories of Facultative or Facultative Wet, as used by state agencies in Florida to define wetlands. Going back to the list, this reduces to Japanese millet a.k.a. barnyard grass or Echinochloa crusgalli and hemp sesbania a.k.a. Sesbania macrocarpa or S. exaltata. A possible addition is common aeschynomene a.k.a. Aeschynomene americana that is adapted to moist sites. Other plant groups may be used successfully on drier sites, but it is my belief that sesbania is the most highly suited food plot plant for use in south Florida because it is tolerant of a wide range of hydrologic conditions from inundated to moist. It produces thick stands and once it matures, the pods dehisce by partially splitting and allowing seeds to drop over a protracted period of time. In this way it enhances status of a foraging versus an attractant plot, by providing a long-term food source. Planting sesbania with Japanese millet provides the most practical way of producing a successful quail food plot. 40

46 Fertilizing Foods that are high in nutrient content are sought out by wildlife. Therefore ensuring higher nutrient content in a food plot is a sensible goal that is achieved via the application of fertilizer. Once again soil testing should be used to guide fertilizer composition and application rates. This is more important for fertilizer application than for lime. The reason is that many south Florida soils are so poor that a suite of minor nutrients is necessary as well as the macro N:P:K. Bear in mind that legumes such as sesbania can do with little or no nitrogen, whereas grasses such as Japanese millet, require equal amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. When planted together, as I am advocating for most south Florida range and pasture situations, a at pounds per acre will be appropriate for a single application immediately before or at planting. At the Webb, 400pounds of to the acre are used Seeding Rates Successful plantings in the Webb WMA have comprised 20 lbs. of sesbania and 20 lbs. of Japanese millet seed to the acre. This is broadcast from two spreaders facing inwards from the draw-bar of a tractor. One contains the sesbania seed and the other the millet. It is necessary to separate the two seed types due to the difference in weight resulting in uneven distribution if they are spread from the same spreader. Seeding must be followed by the use of a drag harrow or by rolling with a cultipacker. PRECAUTIONS When establishing food plots, it may be necessary to fence areas to exclude livestock, at least until they are fully established. This allows for the sesbania and Japanese millet to become established without being grazed by cattle. Recently aeschynomene has been included in the Webb plantings to benefit deer. Should it survive to seed bearing age, it is used by quail and in its young stages, it is associated with insect production, offering additional benefit to quail. AGRICULTURAL CROPS Corn, sorghums, sunflower, wheat, oats and soybeans, to name a few, all provide valuable food sources for quail. If any of these are being grown and it is economically feasible to leave 4 to 8 rows un-harvested, outside the perimeter road and/or swale of a farm field, and contiguous with a weedy edge or native flatwood area, great benefit can accrue to quail. Similarly, strips of 2 to 4 rows may be left unharvested in the field to provide food and cover for quail away from the field edge. However, it may not be effective for either quail or crop returns to do this throughout a field. 41

47 Alternatively, if a field has been disked and limed for row crop production and a border is sacrificed for quail food production, it should be planted and fertilized outside of the perimeter road with a desirable food plant or mixture of plants. CONCLUSIONS Supplemental feeding has been shown to be beneficial to quail production and survival in the more fertile soils of north Florida and south Georgia. Therefore, the benefits of feeding and/or food plot establishment should be as great or greater in the less fertile soils of south Florida. If a decision is made to establish food plots for quail, then the foraging versus attractant variety should be used. Greater than 1% of the whole area should be established, and the continuous strip design provides for this. The use of lime and fertilizer is essential to maximize the value of food plots to quail via increased nutrient value of food produced. Precautions should be taken to minimize losses from food plot plantings to domestic cattle. Benefits can accrue to quail production from leaving un-harvested edges in agricultural crop fields or establishing food plots along farm field edges. 42

48 SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING AND BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT Bill Palmer Director of Game Bird Research Tall Timbers Research Station Food management has always been a part of bobwhite management. For many years, biologists recommended planting food plots for bobwhites. However, food plots have many disadvantages; they are expensive to plant relative to the area they affect, they are only suitable where soil, water, and topography permit planting, they often fail when natural food sources fail such as during droughts, and when they do succeed they provide food when natural seed sources are at their greatest during early fall. While food plots can serve other useful functions, such as providing bugging areas for broods, their weaknesses as a management tool to deliver quality food year round to bobwhites often makes them inefficient and ineffective. Today, supplemental feeding programs have become a common management practice in the Southeast. Supplemental feeding programs have evolved from the application of feed during winter to improve hunting to an integral part of bobwhite population management. The keys to a successful supplemental feeding program include selecting a safe food source and the proper frequency, rate, and distribution of feeding. Before I discuss what entails a successful feeding program, understanding how feeding programs benefit bobwhite populations is necessary to understanding why they are important. Research indicates that supplemental feeding reduces movements of bobwhites, which can be helpful for holding bobwhites on a property. This can be important on relatively small properties because it keeps bobwhites on areas that are actively managed. Feeding programs tend to increase bobwhite survival, especially during periods of drought or excessive predation from migratory predators. Increased survival is important because as survival increases, so does the potential reproductive output of the population. Where bobwhites are hunted, supplemental feeding can shift mortality away from predators to hunters. That is, even if annual survival is the same, more birds are harvested and fewer are taken by predators. Finally, supplemental feeding may increase the number of bobwhites that successfully nest and hatch a brood. Taken together, supplemental feeding can maintain higher populations over time than if it was not available to bobwhites. To recap, supplemental feeding is an important population management tool because it increases survival and nesting while reducing movements off your property, and more of the annual mortality is attributable to hunting a goal of management than predation. What supplemental feeding cannot do is provide habitat. Without a solid habitat management program, supplemental feeding is a waste of time and money. Bobwhites have relatively specific habitat needs, requiring natural foods, year-round habitat, nesting sites, brood habitat and protection for the elements and predation. I cannot 43

49 stress enough that without well-managed habitat, supplemental feeding is a waste of time. It only benefits bobwhites that have access to suitable habitat. A good supplemental feeding program provides a useful food resource, yearround, to a large percentage of the bobwhite population. If year-round feeding is not an option, the most critical time from a population management point of view is from January through June. This provides bobwhites with ample food resources during the leanest months of February and March, and helps ensure bobwhites maintain good condition through the first few nesting attempts. Many types of feed can be used for bobwhites. We generally recommend using sorghum because it is small, inconspicuous, and relatively resilient to rot. Corn is probably the most commonly used seed, but it tends to rot quickly in wet warm weather. Other seeds that can be used include nearly any grain seed such as wheat, soybeans, and millet. Regardless of the type of seed, it is important that you ensure the food source is safe and not infected with alflatoxins. Alflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by strains of Aspergillus spp. that exists on all seeds and can cause health problems for wild turkeys and bobwhites. While there is some conflicting information, alfatoxin levels should be < 20 parts per billion (ppb) to avoid any harmful affects to gamebirds. Some wildlife feeds are sold for wildlife because they are unsafe for poultry or livestock. If in doubt, have your source of seed tested to ensure that aflatoxin levels are low, preferably < 20 ppb. We have researched the benefits accrued from using processed foods, such as poultry laying mash, or foods high in certain amino acids (protein), such has soybeans. While grains can be spread, processed laying mash needs to be supplied through feeders in a mix of grain and mash. However, research generally indicates that these additions to grain only result in minor differences in productivity of bobwhite populations. Therefore, I recommend a solid grain feeding program, rather than more timeconsuming and expensive quality diets. Feeding can be accomplished by spreading feed along dedicated feeding routes, or with a large number of feeders (about 1 per 15 to 20 acres), but is best provided in adequate cover. I recommend supplemental feeding along dedicated feeding routes for many reasons, but primarily because bobwhites can access feed where they want to be, not where we place a feeder. Also, feeders tend to attract rodents, snakes, hogs, deer, raccoons, bears, and other critters that make feeders less useful for bobwhites and more difficult to manage. For instance, we have video showing cotton rats scaring bobwhites away from a feeder. I don t have to tell you what a hog will do to a feeder. Finally, feed in feeders tends to increase in aflatoxin content over time, especially in warm humid climates. With a well run feeding program, most bobwhites will have access to the food because it is spatially distributed through the available habitat. The goal is to make the supplemental food resource available to all the coveys on a property. On Tall Timbers, we have dedicated feed trails that are approximately 300 yards apart and follow a 44

50 logical route through the uplands. This same system is successfully used on some rangelands managed for bobwhites. Supplemental feeding along existing roads through the habitat is also a successful management technique. Feeding can either be continuous along the feeding trail, or a spreader can be turned on and off strategically to feed areas known to have coveys or the better habitats. Use common sense when determining how to feed a tract of land. If it is too wet to traverse, then it is probably too wet to feed. Feed should be spread every 2 weeks at a rate of 1 bushel of sorghum per 25 acres. So, if you have a 1000 acre tract of good habitat you should plan on spreading about 40 bushes per feeding, every two weeks. In my experience, this amount of feeding is the least you should consider to have an effective feeding program. However, every property is different and with experience you can determine if this is too much or too little and you can vary either the amount or frequency. If there is ample feed remaining after 2 weeks, and bobwhites continue to be seen on the feed trail, feeding every 3 weeks may be okay during that period. However, factors such as rainstorms and other animals, can cause this to vary tremendously year round, thus every two weeks is a good standard. During the hunting season it is pretty easy to tell if your feeding program is working. Most, probably 80% or more of bobwhites that are harvested and have fed should have at least some supplemental feed in them. If not, your coverage or feeding frequency is too low and you are not impacting the bobwhite population. A properly implemented feeding program should be considered a population management tool. When done correctly, research indicates that higher densities of bobwhites can be maintained over time. However, it is not a cure-all, as habitat must be managed first in order for bobwhites to benefit from supplemental feeding. 45

51 PREDATION MANAGEMENT AND BOBWHITES Bill Palmer Director of Game Bird Research Tall Timbers Research Station Predation management is a management concept that depends on multiple strategies to reduce the effects of predation on bobwhite populations and includes habitat management, food management, measuring predator abundance, and adjusting predator abundance when needed. The goal of predation management is to provide an environment where bobwhite demographics are not limited by predation. That is, the goal is managing the entire system to reduce the probability of predation on quail or their eggs and chicks. Successful implementation of predator management requires knowledge of the behaviors of bobwhites and their predators, and how they interact. Predation management should not be confused with predator control. Predator control was a failed management paradigm because it focused on reducing predator numbers without regard to how predation affected bobwhite populations. It was based on the false assumption that removing a predator would result in increased bobwhite populations. However, some predators have minimal if any effects and others have significant effects only at certain times or if their densities are high enough. Predation management is much broader than running a trapping operation. Predation management can result in higher bobwhite numbers. This is a direct result of improved survival of adults, nests, and chicks. It is one of the main reasons why bobwhite populations in the Red Hills of Florida are at historical highs. Another significant benefit of predation management is a reduction in the amount of variation in quail numbers from year to year. This is because improved demographics buffer population declines caused by uncontrollable factors, such as bad weather conditions for nesting. For instance, if heavy rains reduced the success of first nests, but adult survival was high, enough hens would survive and renest, thus reducing the effect of the flooding associated with bad weather. Predation management begins with understanding what predators occur on a property and how and when they are most likely to negatively affect bobwhites. This means understanding what animals are actually significant predators of bobwhites. For instance, we now know that armadillos, bobcats, eastern rat snakes, and king snakes are important nest predators and alternatively, that hogs, coyotes, and cotton rats are not significant nest predators. Also, on some properties, Cooper s hawks annually remove a significant proportion of the fall population and influence future populations. On other areas, Cooper s hawks are much less of a concern, but predation of nests by snakes or mammals is a population level concern. Managing predation begins with habitat management. The single best method to reduce predation is to maximize the suitability of habitat for quail and at the same time reduce the suitability of the habitat for key predators. The concept may seem simple, 46

52 but it is surprising how often it is not followed. An example of ignoring this principle is planting dense timber stands in or around quail management areas. These areas provide habitat for predators and as a result bobwhite populations can suffer higher mortality rates. All land management decisions should consider how an action affects the relationship between bobwhite predators and predation rates on quail. For instance, the scale and coverage of burning has a huge effect on bobwhite survival rates. Burning large blocks of habitat forces bobwhites to find refuge in small unburned patches and exposes them to excessive predation. Bobwhite predators key in on these refuge areas and can cause significant damage to the abundance of bobwhites. However, it was the decision to burn in large blocks that caused the decline, but because the manager did not consider the predation consequences of their decision, that is, predation management was not practiced. Another example would be allowing oaks and myrtles to get tall on fencerows. These trees provide ambush points for avian predators when bobwhites are using structure along fencerows. Supplemental feeding is another form of predation management. With an effective food supplementation program (see companion article), the effects of predation are reduced. For instance, it reduces the forage time of bobwhites and therefore reduces their susceptibility to predation and annual survival can increase. Research indicates that hens with supplemental feed can recycle faster after a failed nesting attempt than those without. Since few bobwhites are actually killed on the nest, supplemental feeding helps reduce the effects of nest predation by allowing hens to renest faster and bring off a brood. Improving survival and nesting through supplemental feeding is a form of managing predation. Bobwhite predators are generalist predators that have broad diets. They feed on insects, fruit, grain, mammals, birds, eggs, and more. So, predator populations on a property are not affected by bobwhite populations. Said another way, bobwhites are insignificant to the populations of predators. Because of this reality, predator numbers can become quite high relative to bobwhite numbers. When predator numbers are relatively high they can reduce chick production and populations over time. Therefore, it is important to assess the abundance of nest predators on a property to determine if predator numbers are excessive. In the Red Hills, research indicates that as predator numbers increase, at a certain point (~0.15 on our predator abundance index) it is likely that chick production will be reduced through predation on eggs. When predator abundance is too high it may be necessary to reduce their numbers to acceptable levels through removal programs to achieve bobwhite population growth. Preliminary research indicates that, given appropriate habitat and management, reducing predator abundance can result in increased fall and spring populations. We have measured as much as a 200% increase in fall populations following a release from excessive predation through a focused trapping effort. Unfortunately, running an effective trapping program is not cheap. Research indicates running up to 1 trap per 20 acres from February through September may be 47

53 necessary to reduce predator abundance during the breeding season and increase bobwhite reproduction. Traps need to be checked at least daily, moved regularly, and multiple lures and techniques need to be used. Such trapping efforts need to be conducted annually, because predators such as raccoons, foxes, bobcats, and opossums are highly mobile and can recover to pre-trap levels in a matter of months from immigration from surrounding sources. Therefore, I recommend landowners take all appropriate actions to reduce predation though careful habitat and feeding management before considering implementing an intensive trapping effort. In some cases, trapping is needed to achieve the bobwhite population goals. However, it must be recognized that to be effective trapping programs must be intensive and long in duration. You can visit our web site (ttrs.org) to read more about predation and learn how to run a predator survey to determine if the predator abundance is excessive on your lands. 48

54 IMPORTED FIRE ANTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT Roberto M. Pereira 1, David F. Williams 2, Timothy S. Davis 3, David H. Oi 1, Herbert T. Bolton 4, Paul M. Horton 3, and H. Glenn Williams 5 1 USDA-ARS, CMAVE, Fire Ant and Household Insects Unit 2 University of Florida, Dept. of Entomology & Nematology 3 Clemson University, Sandhills Research and Education Center 4 USDA/CSREES, Army Environmental Program / Plant and Animal Systems 5 U.S. EPA, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances Two imported fire ants (IFA), the red imported fire ant (RIFA), Solenopsis invicta, and the black imported fire ant (BIFA), S. richteri, were introduced into the United States in the early 1900's and currently inhabit over 320 million acres in the southern United States and Puerto Rico. Red imported fire ants have continued to spread rapidly and now have become established in California and New Mexico. They cause many problems for humans, domestic animals, and agriculture. Between 30% and 60% of the people in the infested areas are stung each year. More than 1% of those people are hypersensitive which means over 200,000 persons per year may require a physician s aid for fire ant stings. Heavy losses in agricultural products such as hay, soybeans, and cattle have been well documented reaching into hundreds of millions of dollars. In addition, IFAs destroy many ground-inhabiting animals and reduce the number of different species in many areas. Fire ants belong to the genus Solenopsis. There are 4 native species in the U.S. and 2 species were accidentally introduced from South America. The native species are Solenopsis geminata (tropical fire ant), Solenopsis xyloni (southern fire ant), and two desert species, Solenopsis aurae and Solenopsis amblychila. A current RIFA/BIFA quarantine map is maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) and can be found on their website at Although, fire ant distribution is limited by cold temperatures and dry conditions, if water and protected habitat is available, fire ants can potentially infest a much larger area of the United States than is presently infested (Figure 1). 49

55 Figure 1. Present and potential imported fire ant infestation in the United States. IFA are very aggressive, reddish brown to black ants approximately 1\8 to 1\4 long that live in large colonies. These colonies build conspicuous mounds, which can be 1 1\2 feet high and 3 feet in diameter, and contain 200,000 to 300,000 workers. They prefer sunny, open areas where the dome-shaped mounds can be easily recognized. When these mounds are disturbed, thousands of worker ants will pour out of the mound and attack any intruder. Their painful, burning sting is similar to a hot match being applied to the skin, hence the name, fire ant. A colony of IFA consists of a mated queen or queens, workers (different sizes), immature ants referred to as brood (eggs, larvae and pupae), and winged males and females (alates). In the spring and summer, generally following a rain, winged males and females fly from the nest and mate in flight. After mating, most of the newly mated queens will fly about 1 to 1 1\2 miles from their nest but can fly 12 miles or more if aided by the wind. Once they land, the females shed their wings, make a small burrow in the ground, seal themselves inside and begin to lay eggs. Once the first workers are produced, the queen only has the job of producing eggs. She is fed, groomed, and protected by the workers and her daily egg production increases dramatically ( eggs/day). Workers can live 8 months or more during colder periods but generally live 2-6 months during the summer months. The queens can live 6 to 7 years. 50

56 Figure 2: Imported fire ant queen surrounded by workers and immature stages (brood). Being omnivorous, IFAs will feed on just about anything. Adult fire ants ingest only liquids, so solid foods are liquefied by feeding them to the 4 th (last) larval stage in the colony. This is the only stage in the colony that can eat solid foods. Food for the colony is collected by workers foraging as far as 100 feet or more from the colony. Workers can forage both day and night and the food is taken back to the colony where it is fed to other members of the colony through a process called trophallaxis in which one ant will feed several other ants by regurgitation. There are two types of fire ant colonies: 1) single-queen (monogyne) colonies and 2) multiple-queen (polygyne) colonies. Single-queen colonies contain only one egglaying queen and do not tolerate another queen. These colonies are very territorial, defending the area around their colony. This allows for population levels of mounds per acre. Multiple-queen colonies have many egg-laying queens (normally 20-60) with 100,000 to 500,000 workers, are not territorial and tolerate other colonies in close proximity so population levels of mounds per acre are common. 51

57 Impact of Fire Ants Imported fire ants cause many problems, but their most noticeable is on humans because of their sting. Although most encounters of humans with fire ants are not life threatening, serious injuries and even death have resulted from IFA stings in some cases. IFAs have also had a major impact on wildlife and agriculture. In areas where they occur, they are the dominant insect species because of their high reproductive capacity, aggressive foraging behavior, and lack of effective natural enemies. IFAs are also responsible for damage to such agricultural commodities as corn, citrus, soybeans, potatoes, okra, and eggplants. The economic impact of fire ants in Florida and the US is summarized in Table 1. IFA has a great impact on other arthropods, ground nesting birds, reptiles, rodents, amphibians, and other organisms. They can be especially harmful to endangered species that are already under stress. Table 1: Estimated annual economic impact of fire ants (millions of dollars in damages + expenditures). Sector Florida USA Agriculture $138 $749 Other Businesses $154 $1,375 Institutions /Governments $29 $254 Households $1,013 $3,375 Total $1,334 $5,753 Impact of Fire Ants on Quail Although in the past there has been some controversy on the effects of fire ants on quail populations, more recent information based on replicated experiments has shown that fire ants can affect quail and other bird populations in several ways. Direct effects on quail populations occur when fire ants attack and kill pipping young or other defenseless birds. Although this may be a very visible and dramatic effect on individual birds, the indirect effects may be of greater importance to quail populations. Such indirect effects of fire ants on quail populations include reduction of life span and weight gain, changes in foraging and other behaviors, reduction of available food, and changes in the community structure. All these effects may result in unfavorable conditions and a long-term decline in the quail populations. The end result will be an observed decrease in the quail population, which may not be easily associated with the presence of high fire ant populations. Some examples of research results on effects of fire ants on quail are presented in Table 2. 52

58 Table 2: Effects of fire ants and fire ant control measures on quail populations. Factor Effect on quail population Reference IFA Presence 6% mortality of pipping chicks Johnson 1961 IFA Presence 12% mortality of pipping chicks Dewberry 1962 IFA Infestation 57% decrease in abundance (birds/observer hour) Allen et al IFA attacks on chicks 56% decrease in survival rate 19% loss in daily weight gain Giuliano et al Amdro Treatment Fire ant suppression 145% increase in quail density Allen et al % increase in whistle count 173 % increase in chick survival Muller et al Control of fire ants, especially on an areawide scale, can help improve conditions for the quail population, but in many cases may not be sufficient. That occurs when other environmental conditions besides the presence of fire ants have also been changed in a direction unfavorable to quail survival. In that case, other steps must be taken in order to restore favorable conditions for the birds. For instance, the presence of fire ants may have contributed to a decrease in the population of important diet component or nesting habitats of the quail population. The simple removal of fire ants may not be sufficient to guarantee survival of the quail population. It will also be necessary to follow that up with other measures to insure that these indirect effects of the fire ant presence are also corrected. Such measures may include several habitat restoration techniques discussed elsewhere in this publication. However, it is important to carefully consider any measures before they are implemented because recommended practices for increasing quail populations may also benefit fire ants. Thus, the beneficial effects on the quail population may be denied by a simultaneous increase in fire ant populations. 53

59 CHEMICAL CONTROL OF FIRE ANTS Current Available Chemicals and Approximate Costs There are many chemical products available for the control of IFAs. These can be found in hardware stores, lawn and garden centers, farmer cooperatives and chemical specialty stores. The prices vary greatly as do the results obtained by individual chemicals and methods of application (see Table 3), and depending on the location. This information, which is updated yearly, was obtained from the Alabama Cooperative Extension System and can be found on their website Types of Treatments The two types of treatments most often used today to apply chemicals for IFA control are (1) Broadcast Applications and (2) Individual Mound Treatments. Unlike baits, contact insecticides usually kill ants quickly. In many cases, they do not kill the queen, and the colony survives and reestablishes. However, if applied appropriately, a majority of the ants in a colony can be killed quickly by using contact insecticides. This reduces the potential danger from stings much faster than baits. To take advantage of the thoroughness of baits and the fast reductions by contact insecticides, a two-step method in which baits are applied first followed by a contact insecticide has been recommended for control of IFA in urban areas. This is because foraging workers that collect the baits need time to spread them throughout the colony before the fast kill contact insecticides are applied. 1) Broadcast Applications Baits This strategy attempts to reduce fire ant populations by applying insecticides incorporated into an attractant, or bait, on an area-wide basis. Most bait products contain slow acting toxicants dissolved in soybean oil, which is a food source for fire ants, absorbed into corn grits. The slow action of the toxicants allows the ants to feed the toxic oil to the other members of the colony before they die. When the toxicant is fed to the queen(s), she either dies or no longer produces new workers and the colony eventually dies. Broadcasting baits is one of the most effective methods of controlling fire ants, especially over large areas. It also is an efficient method of maintaining control for longer periods and is better for slowing migration of colonies into treated areas from untreated ones. Guidelines for Effective Bait Applications: i. Use fresh bait. Avoid baits that are old, left in unsealed bags, or stored at high temperatures. ii. Keep baits dry. Apply baits when the grass and ground are dry or drying and rain is not expected, preferably for the next 24 hours. 54

60 iii. Apply baits when fire ants are actively foraging. Foraging activity can be determined by spreading bait in a small pile in the area to be treated. Fire ants generally forage when the air temperature is between 70 and 90 F, day or night. iv. Follow the directions on the label. It is against the law to apply baits in areas not listed on the label. Granular insecticides The chemical fipronil has recently shown excellent results in controlling IFA when applied as a granular and is now being used by this method. New chemicals being developed may also be applied by this method. Broadcasting equipment suitable for small areas (e.g. lawns and playgrounds) include hand-held seed spreaders and chest spreaders. The spreader should be set at the smallest opening, and the person should walk rapidly to apply approximately 1 ounce of bait per 2000 square feet. Electric spreaders are suitable for broadcasting baits and granules over larger areas (1 to 25 acres). These spreaders must be mounted onto vehicles that can maintain low speeds and be calibrated to apply 1 to 1.5 pounds of bait per acre. 2) Individual Mound Treatments This strategy attempts to eliminate colonies of fire ants by treating mounds individually. To eliminate a colony, the queen or queens must be killed. In the case of multiple-queen colonies, all the queens must be killed, thus, making individual mound treatments not a good choice for controlling multiple queen colonies. Also, individual mound treatments are time consuming and labor intensive because the mounds must be located and treated one at a time. An advantage of individual mound treatments is that the colonies may be eliminated faster than colonies treated with broadcast bait applications. Methods used to treat mounds individually Baits: Bait products used for broadcast bait applications can be also applied as individual mound treatments. Sprinkle the recommended amount of bait around the base of the mound (up to 3 feet away). Do not apply the bait on top of the mound, as the ants may not search for food there. Drenches: Apply the drench to an undisturbed mound on cool, sunny mornings. If drenches are applied in hot, dry weather, most of the ants are deep within the mound, and the drench will not contact the ants. Granules: Evenly scatter a measured amount (follow label directions) of granules over the surface and around a mound, without disturbing the mound. Gently sprinkle 1 to 2 gallons of water, with a sprinkler can, over the granules to avoid disturbing the colony and washing granules off the mound. Dusts: Dusts are applied by evenly sprinkling a measured amount of dust (follow label directions) over the mound. Aerosols: The insecticide should be injected as the probe is inserted into a mound for a specified amount of time (follow label directions). Depending on the size of the mound, several insertions may be needed to distribute the insecticide. 55

61 3) Combining Broadcast Baiting and Individual Mound Treatments This method utilizes the efficiency of broadcast baiting and the fast action of individual mound treatments. Baits must be broadcast first to efficiently reduce fire ant populations. Wait 2 to 3 days after broadcasting the bait to allow fire ants to forage and distribute the bait before individually treating mounds. Treat mounds preferably with an insecticide formulated as a dust, drench, granular, aerosol, or fast-acting bait specifically labeled for fire ant control. Only treat mounds that are causing immediate problems or are a potential hazard (e.g., mounds located in areas frequented by people or pets). Most mounds that receive the slower acting baits will eventually be eliminated, and the presence of small populations of fire ants may help slow the reinfestation of an area. 4) Barrier and Spot Treatments Products that contain active ingredients such as acephate, bifenthrin, carbaryl, permethrin, deltamethrin, and others, immediately kill ants on contact. These products are usually sold as sprays or dusts, and some are latex paint mixtures. They may be applied in wide bands on and around building foundations, equipment and other areas to create barriers that exclude ants. They also may be applied to ant trails to eliminate foraging ants. Barrier and spot treatments do not eliminate colonies. Follow label directions for specific uses and application procedures. 5) Area Treatments Recently, a granular formulation containing the active ingredient fipronil has given excellent results in field tests against fire ants. In several studies, is has been demonstrated that much larger areas of fire ants can be control for longer periods of time, more than a year, from a single application of this product. At the present time, this has not been seen with baits or other products. 6) Spot Eradication Finally, there are some areas recently infested with fire ants that are isolated from the main infestation areas of the U.S. that could be candidates for spot eradication efforts. Fire ant suppression on large areas is currently feasible using only broadcast application of baits and/or granular insecticides. Bait and granular products applied over large areas can have detrimental effects on non-target organisms and most of these insecticide products lack registration for food crops. Therefore, selection of the area, the insecticide to be used, timing and number of applications, and the costs must be considered before attempting spot eradication. It must be emphasized that the area to be considered must be at least 5 miles from any know infestation, all lands must be treated, and multiple broadcast applications of one or more baits products for several years will be necessary in order to achieve 100 percent control. In addition, a firm commitment to monitor the treated area 2 to 4 times per year for several years before, during and after treatment will be necessary before it can be determined that the program was successful. 56

62 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF FIRE ANTS IFA populations in the U.S. are more than 5 times larger than in their native South American homeland. Biological factors (predators, parasites, pathogens, competitors) are one of the major reasons for the differences in populations. So, the higher numbers of IFAs found in the United States may be a result of their escape from natural enemies in South America. Self-sustaining biological control agents could become a major factor in providing long term suppression of fire ant populations by causing direct mortality and/or becoming stress factors that reduce the dominance of fire ants. Self-sustaining biological control agents also could be useful in natural areas and other locations where pesticide usage is not tolerated. The combination of natural control agents and competition from native ants should result in a continued reduction in the overall fire ant populations. The integration of chemicals and biological control agents into an IFA control program offers a strategy in which the chemical treatments would be applied to rapidly reduce the population while the biocontrol agents would prevent, limit or slow reinfestation of IFAs into the treated area. A number of natural control organisms have been described as having potential as biocontrol agents against IFAs; however, their effectiveness in controlling fire ant populations has not been very good. Direct applications of nematodes, mites, and fungi to fire ant mounds generally have caused colonies to move, instead of being eliminated. The potential of some parasites and pathogens are currently being studied and a few have shown excellent promise. 1) Pathogens and their Impact on Fire Ants A) Protozoa The microsporidium, Thelohania solenopsae, is a pathogen that was previously found only in South America, where it is the most common microbial enemy of native fire ants. It was discovered in the U.S. in Studies have shown that T. solenopsae-infected fire ants colonies died faster than uninfected colonies. In studies in Texas, IFA nest sizes were smaller when infected with T. solenopsae. In Florida, reports indicated a reduction of 63% in infected IFA populations over a 2-year period. T. solenopsae infects all stages of fire ants and directly impacts fire ant colonies by weakening queens so they eventually do not produce new workers. T. solenopsae is very promising and a new tactic for the control of fire ants. This disease has the potential to: (1) be a long-term, environmentally compatible, fire ant control agent that is useful where fire ant controls are not available; (2) reduce the reliance on pesticides by slowing reinfestations; (3) protect and conserve ecosystem quality and diversity by reducing fire ant dominance and encouraging the establishment of native ants and other arthropods; (4) be utilized as a stress factor by increasing the susceptibility of IFA to other pathogens, natural enemies, and chemical pesticides; and (5) be used in an integrated pest management program where infected fire ants would be more susceptible to pesticides and, consequently, the amount of insecticide needed for control could be significantly reduced. 57

63 Vairimorpha invictae is another microsporidum that looks very promising against fire ants. In laboratory observations, fire ant colonies with infections of both T. solenopsae and V. invictae died faster than those with a single infection. Currently, V. invictae has only been found in South America, and it has not been released in the U.S. A new protozoan pathogen in the genus Mattesia was recently discovered in Florida infecting the imported fire ant. This disease is named Yellow Head Disease (YHD) because the heads of infected ants become yellow-orange. The YHD is widelydistributed in Florida in both multiple-queen and single-queen fire ant colonies. This disease has also been discovered in ants collected in Mississippi. YHD-infected field colonies have a high death rate when moved to the laboratory. This rapid mortality of infected ants potentially indicates that this disease may have significant impact on fire ant populations, and may serve as a biological control for these pest ants. B) Fungi Fungi have been investigated by a number of researchers. Mortality as high as 90% was observed when IFA was exposed to the fungus Beauveria bassiana. Although investigations of a Brazilian strain of B. bassiana on fire ant colonies demonstrated that this fungus provided some control of the treated colonies, other scientists did not get acceptable levels of control with B. bassiana in a series of field trials and poor results were obtained in a trial conducted in Mississippi. Still, fungi offer a potential as a biopesticide for controlling IFA. Research is being conducted on 3 new fungal pathogens of fire ants that were recently discovered in Florida. The potential of these new pathogens to control fire ant populations is yet unknown. C) Nematodes The potential for nematodes in the genus Steinernema to control fire ants has been investigated by a number of researchers. Laboratory assays determined that larvae and pupae of fire ants are somewhat susceptible to Steinernema carpocapsae while adult workers were much less susceptible. Minimal control was achieved with this nematode in a series of field trials in Texas and Florida. In tests in Texas, a large number of fire ant colonies simply moved out of the nematode-treated mounds and this is a problem that represents a limitation in the use of nematodes for controlling IFA. D) Bacteria Several bacterial pathogens of other insects have been tested against imported fire ants but none gave significant control. Although bacteria have not shown much promise as biological control agents against IFA, little has been done in evaluating them against fire ants, and the few laboratory studies that were conducted involved only fire ant workers. The effects of bacterial pathogens on the immature stages of fire ants have been almost completely overlooked. Effects on immature stages may be very important because fire ant larvae lack the filtering mechanism that prevents adults from ingesting solid particles as small as bacteria. The discovery of bacterial pathogens for use against fire ants may hold considerable promise for future biological control of IFA. E) Viruses Information on the use of viruses as control agents against the imported fire ant and ants in general is almost nonexistent. Only recently have viruses been positively identified from fire ants by researchers from the USDA-ARS, CMAVE in Gainesville, Florida. Research in this area definitely has been neglected probably because of the 58

64 difficulty in discovering viruses for testing which is likely due to their extremely small size. Viruses may be an excellent agent for the biological control of imported fire ants, but little effort has been put forth in this area of research. 2) Parasites and their Impact on Fire Ants A) Social Parasitic Ant The parasitic ant Solenopsis daguerrei lacks workers and produces only queens and males. These parasitic queens enter fire ant colonies and attach themselves to the IFA colony queen inhibiting egg production by the fire ant queen and causing the IFA colony to collapse. The presence of S. daguerrei in fire ant colonies also has detrimental effects on colony growth, the number of winged males and females produced in the colony, and the number of host queens in IFA multiple-queen colonies. Recent studies have shown that this parasitic ant is extreme difficulty to rear in the laboratory and so far, it has not been successfully introduced into laboratory fire ant colonies. B) Mites Several mite species live on and are predaceous to plants and some animals. One of these, the straw itch mite, Pyemotes tritici, has been reported as a predator of imported fire ants. However, although these mites will attack IFAs, several studies have shown that this mite does not successful control IFA. Also, the straw itch mite can cause severe skin rashes (dermatitis) in humans; thus, there is a risk for individuals who handle these mites or persons exposed to the mites following applications. C) Decapitating Flies Flies in the genus Pseudacteon are one of the most promising group for biological control of fire ants because they: (1) are highly specific in their host preferences, (2) are broadly distributed across season, geography and, (3) affect fire ant behavior and probably populations. These parasitic flies attack individual workers, stop fire ant foraging, and shift the local competitive balance to native ant species. The larvae of these flies decapitate their hosts and then pupate in the ant's head capsule. There are about 20 species of Pseudacteon flies found attacking fire ants in South America. So far, three of these species have been introduced in the US and their populations are spreading throughout the fire ant infested area. In South America, decapitating flies are common and active throughout most of the year, but different species are more active at different times of the day and attack different sizes of IFA workers. A single fly can stop the foraging of hundreds of workers. This reduction in foraging by fire ants should increase competition from other ants that would otherwise be excluded from food sources in fire ant territories. The presence of decapitating flies in the field is easily determined by punching small depressions (~10 cm diameter) in fire ant mounds and inspecting them every few minutes for hovering flies. Often attacking flies can be detected several meters away because of greatly reduced ant activity. 59

65 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF FIRE ANTS Integrated Pest Management, as defined by the U.S. Code of Regulations [U.S.C. 136r1.], is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical, and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health, and environmental risks. For fire ant management, a sustainable approach is one in which the benefits of control exceed the costs of obtaining and maintaining a defined level of control. The level of control needed may vary depending on the hazard or risk of damage fire ants cause for a given site. Thus, the management programs within a large location may consist of different subprograms ranging from no ant management to very intensive programs depending on the needs or use pattern of the particular site. Specific control measures utilized and their effectiveness will also vary according to biological/behavioral characteristics of the pest (e.g., single or multiple-queen colonies), land use pattern (e.g., landscaping around an office building or highly used recreational field), potential for reinfestation (e.g., is the site with the control program adjacent to inaccessible property with high fire ant populations?), weather conditions (e.g., extreme drought or prolonged freezing can reduce populations), and resources available (e.g., budget, labor, time). Given these many variables, establishing and maintaining an effective control program is site specific and requires ongoing evaluation and periodic adjustments in management tactics. At this time, it is difficult to quantify in full the actual economic benefits of using integrated control versus insecticide treatment; however, there will be less impact on the environment because of reduced insecticide use. SELECTED REFERENCES General References on Fire Ants and their Control Drees, B.M., C. L. Barr, D. R. Shanklin, D. K. Pollet, K. Flanders, and B. Sparks Managing red imported fire ants in agriculture. Texas Agric. Ext. Serv. B-6076, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX. 18 pp. Drees, B. M., C. L. Barr, S. B. Vinson, R. E. Gold, M. E. Merchant, N. Riggs, L. Lennon, S. Russell, P. Nester, D. Kostroun, B. Sparks, D. Pollet, D. Shanklin, K. Loftin, K. Vail, K. Flanders, P. M. Horton, D. Oi, P. G. Koehler, and J. T. Vogt Managing imported fire ants in urban areas. Texas Agric. Ext. Serv. B-6043, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX. 19 pp. Oi, D. H., D. F. Williams, P. G. Koehler, and R. S. Patterson Imported fire ants and their management in Florida. University of Florida, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Bull. SP pp. Vinson, S. B Invasion of the red imported fire ant: Spread, Biology, and Impact. Amer. Entomol. 43:

66 Williams, D. F.; Collins, H. L., and Oi, D. H The Red Imported Fire Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): An Historical Perspective of Treatment Programs and the Development of Chemical Baits for Control. Amer. Entomol. 47: Selected References on Fire Ant Pathogens and Parasites Oi, D. H. and D. F. Williams Impact of Thelohania solenopsae (Microsporidia: Thelohaniidae) on polygyne colonies of red imported fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 95: Pereira, R. M., D. F. Williams, J. J. Becnel, and D. H. Oi Yellow-head disease caused by a newly discovered Mattesia sp. in populations of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 81: Porter, S. D Biology and behavior of Pseudacteon decapitating flies (Diptera: Phoridae) that parasitize Solenopsis fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Fla. Entomol. 81: Valles, S., C. Strong, P. Dang, W. Hunter, R. Pereira, D. Oi, A. Shapiro, and D. Williams A picorna-like virus from the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta: initial discovery, genome sequence, and characterization. Virology 328: Williams, D.F., Oi, D.H., Porter, S.D., Pereira, R.M., Briano, J.A Biological Control of Imported Fire Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). American Entomologist. 49: Selected References on Effects of Fire Ants on Quail Allen, C. R., R. D. Willey, et al Impact of red imported fire ant infestation on northern bobwhite quail abundance trends in southeastern United States. J. Agric. Urban Entomol. 17: Forbes, A. R., C. B. Dabbert, R. B. Mitchell, and J. M. Mueller Does habitat management for northern bobwhite benefit the red imported fire ant? In Stephen J. DeMaso, William P. Kuvlesky, Jr., and Fidel Hernandez, eds. Quail V: Proceedings of the Fifth National Quail Symposium, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, TX. Giuliano, W. M., C. R. Allen, et al Effects of red imported fire ants on northern bobwhite chicks. J. Wildl. Manage. 60: Williamson, S., L. Wes Burger, Jr., S. Demarais, and M. Chamberlain Effects of Northern Bobwhite Habitat Management Practices on Red Imported Fire Ants. In Stephen J. DeMaso, William P. Kuvlesky, Jr., and Fidel Hernandez, eds. Quail V: Proceedings of the Fifth National Quail Symposium, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, TX. 61

67 Selected Websites on Fire Ants

68 Table 3: List of chemicals for fire ant control and approximate cost to treat one acre from publication no. ANR-175-A, 2005 Fire Ant Control Materials for Alabama Homeowners, Alabama Cooperative Extension System, Kathy Flanders, Extension Entomologist, Associate Professor, Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn University. Approximate cost to treat Trade name (Common names are lowercased and highlighted.) one acre 1 40 mounds Baits that stop the production of new fire ants and act in 4 to 8 weeks (insect growth regulators) fenoxycarb Award Fire Ant Bait $16 $10 (S)-methoprene Extinguish Professional Fire Ant Bait $17 $22 Baits that contain a slow-acting insecticide and act in 2 to 4 weeks hydramethylnon Amdro Ant Block Home Perimeter Ant Bait -- $36 Amdro Fire Ant Bait or Amdro Pro $15 $18 Amdro Fire Ant Bait Yard Treatment $ spinosad Ferti-lome Come and Get It $49 $21 Green Light Fire Ant Control with Conserve $48 $19 Ortho Fire Ant Killer Bait Granules $39 $15 Baits that are a mixture of an insect growth regulator and a slow-acting insecticide and act in 2 to 4 weeks (S)-methoprene and hydramethylnon Extinguish Plus Fire Ant Bait $17 $22 Baits that contain an insecticide and act within a few days indoxacarb Spectracide Fire Ant Killer plus Preventer Bait Once & Done $87 $8 Granules that contain a slow-acting insecticide and act in 3 to 4 weeks fipronil GardenTech Over-N-Out $ Contact insecticides that act in 1 to 2 days Dusts (some may need to be watered in) acephate 63

69 Approximate cost to treat Trade name (Common names are lowercased and one acre 1 40 mounds highlighted.) Acephate 75 SP Agricultural and Fire Ant Insecticide -- $3 Hi-Yield Acephate Systemic Turf, Tree, and Ornamental Spray -- $5 Orthene 75% Turf Tree and Ornamental Spray -- $5 Ortho Orthene Fire Ant Killer -- $5 carbaryl Hi-Yield 10% Carbaryl Garden and Pet Dust -- $6 cyfluthrin Bayer Advanced Lawn Fire Ant Killer -- $3 deltamethrin Bengal UltraDust 2X Fire Ant Killer -- $5 Bengal UltraDust Fire Ant Killer -- $7 Eagles-7 Fire Ant Destroyer -- $7 Eliminator Ant and Roach Killer Dust -- $5 Eliminator Fire Ant Killer Dust -- $15 Enforcer Fire Ant Killer -- $10 Green Light Many Purpose Dust -- $5 Terro Ant Dust -- $8 Terro Fire Ant Killer -- $9 permethrin Spectracide No-Odor Fire Ant Killer Ready-to-Use Dust -- $4 pyrethrins and diatomaceous earth Organic One Commercial Insecticide -- $22 Organic One Fire Ant Killer -- $27 Liquid concentrates for use as drenches carbaryl GardenTech Sevin Bug Killer Concentrate -- $32 cedar oil Natural Guard Lawn, Plant & Pet Insect Spray -- $27 cypermethrin Demon WP -- $239 Surrender Cyper WP -- $234 d-limonene Citrex Fire Ant Killer -- $150 permethrin ACE Soil and Turf Insect Control Concentrate -- $121 Bonide Termite and Carpenter Ant Killer -- $45 Do It Best Multipurpose Garden Insect Killer -- $114 Eliminator Ant, Flea, Tick, and Mosquito Killer -- Concentrate $68 Hi-Yield 38 Plus Turf, Tree, and Ornamental Insect -- 64

70 Approximate cost to treat Trade name (Common names are lowercased and one acre 1 40 mounds highlighted.) Control $81 Hi-Yield Garden, Pet, and Livestock Insect Control -- Hi-Yield Indoor/Outdoor Broad Use Insecticide -- Hi-Yield Kill-A-Bug II -- K-Gro Multipurpose Garden Insect Killer Concentrate -- Martin s Vegetable Plus -- Spectracide Bug Stop Garden & Lawn Insect Control Concentrate Surrender Termite Killer II $33 $37 $117 $67 $4 $118 $25 Termite Killer III -- $94 spinosad Ferti-lome Borer, Bagworm, Leaf Miner, and Tent -- Caterpillar Spray $85 Liquid concentrates for use as a hose end sprayer carbaryl GardenTech Sevin Bug Killer Ready to Spray -- $29 Granules for mound treatment and/or broadcasting bifenthrin Ortho Fire Ant Killer Broadcast Granules $154 $23 Orthro Max Fire Ant Killer $160 $12 Scotts Turf Builder with Fire Ant Control $ carbaryl Eliminator Lawn Insect Killer Granules -- $3 GardenTech Sevin Lawn Insect Granules -- $3 Hi-Yield Lawn + Garden Insect Killer Granules -- $10 Orthro BugBGon Lawn and Soil Insect Killer with Grub Control -- $6 cyfluthrin Bayer Advanced Lawn PowerForce Fire Ant Killer Ready to Use Granules -- $7 deltamethrin Basic Solutions by Ortho Fire Ant Killer Granules $122 $7 Hi-Yield Imported Fire Ant Control Granules Containing Deltamethrin -- $10 Hi-Yield Turf Ranger Insect Control Granules -- $6 imidacloprid and beta-cyfluthrin Bayer Advanced Lawn Complete Insect Killer for Soil -- $7 65

71 Approximate cost to treat Trade name (Common names are lowercased and one acre 1 40 mounds highlighted.) & Turf lambda-cyhalothrin Spectracide Fire Ant Killer Granules Mound Destroyer -- $10 Spectracide Fire Ant Killer Granules 2 $123 $13 Spectracide Fire Ant Killer Mound and Broadcast Granules $99 $10 Spectracide Triazicide Soil and Turf Insect Killer Granules -- $8 2 permethrin Bonide Ant Killer Granules -- $54 Eliminator Fire Ant Killer Plus! Granules -- $11 Enforcer Fire Ant Killer Granules II -- $20 Grant's Ant and Spider Killer Granules -- $60 Hi-Yield Kill-A-Bug II Lawn Granules -- $9 K-Gro Fire Ant Killer Granules -- $10 Real-Kill Multipurpose Lawn and Garden Insect Killer Granules -- $6 Spectracide Bug Stop Insect Control Granules -- $9 Terro Outdoor Ant Killer Plus Multi-Purpose Insect Control -- $26 Viper 25G Lawn Insect Control Granules -- $12 -- Product is not labeled to control fire ants in this way. 1 One acre is 43,560 square feet. To determine the square footage of a yard, multiply the length in feet by the width in feet. 2 This price applies to the 10- to 20-pound bags. If the 1-pound shaker can is use, it would cost $50 to treat 40 mounds. 66

72 MANAGEMENT CHOICES: USING QUAIL MANAGEMENT TO BENEFIT OTHER WILDLIFE Charles L. McKelvy 1 and Adam Butler 2 1 Wildlife Biologist Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2 Graduate Research Assistant Tall Timbers Research Station and University of Georgia Wildlife enhances our quality of life, forms an integral part of our landscape and provides a barometer of environmental health. Quail management utilizes land management applications such as prescribed fire, mowing, roller chopping, timber management, and grazing to enhance or maintain the proper combinations of food and cover. Although quail have unique habitat requirements, many management practices that target this species are also required to maintain diverse and abundant populations of other wildlife, both game and nongame. By understanding the individual life requirements of the desired wildlife, recognizing the potential habitat overlap between the different species, and knowing the factors the limit population growth, we can prescribe the proper management action(s) to encourage habitat conditions that favor wildlife diversity and productivity. In native landscapes, land management in South Florida often includes the control of various vegetation types to produce timber or forage. This affects wildlife populations because various wildlife species depend on different stages of plant growth, commonly referred to as successional stages. Some wildlife species like quail depend entirely on early successional stages (e.g., grasses, legumes, and weeds); other species need only mid-successional stages (shrubs and saplings); others require late successional stages (mature pine and hardwoods); while a great number of wildlife species must have a mixture of all successional stages. A landowner s wildlife objectives may be most successfully achieved by varying land management across his/her property to meet the seasonal needs of wildlife. So what are the considerations for successful management? KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL HABITAT MANAGEMENT FOR MULTIPLE SPECIES Active management through the proper use of prescribed fire, mowing, chopping, and timber harvest to encourage species diversity within and between forest stands, pastures, and other habitat patches. Discourage extensive acreage of similar habitat types or conditions by varying both the timing and location of management treatments. In timbered stands, retain older stand components by varying the rotation length on some portions of the property/landscape. Retain portions of mixed stands of hardwood/pine and cypress. 67

73 SPECIES SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT AND OVERLAP WILD TURKEY MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS Vary the timing, scale, and location of prescribed burning across the property Active timber management (multiple thinnings) to keep an open canopy and increase or maintain ground cover diversity and growth Encourage grasses and legumes by chopping and burning Minimize mowing during the nesting season (April July) In forested stands, create permanent openings for bugging/foraging, and brood rearing WHITE-TAILED DEER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS Vary timing and location of mowing, burning, thinning to maintain optimum forage conditions Maintain some thickets for escape or screening cover Create and manage the edges of different habitat types The retention of a hardwood and soft mast (fleshy fruits such as palmetto berries, plums, persimmons) component is seasonally important SONG BIRDS/QUAIL MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS Variety and abundance of bird species present is a function of groundcover and tree canopy structure, diversity, and layering of vegetation Vary the timing and location of burning and thinning to maintain optimum ground cover structure and composition (palmetto coverage <20-40 percent and height < 2 feet tall) Minimize mowing during the nesting season (April July) Retain fence rows and the associated shrub component Retention of snags and some timber component for perching and safety 68

74 Conclusions For landowners wishing to implement quail management strategies that target quail, but enhance habitat conditions for other wildlife the most import steps are to: 1. Set realistic goals based on the desired wildlife and economic objectives for the property 2. Inventory wildlife resources including type and condition of available habitats 3. Develop a long range management plan that addresses the various management strategies that will be employed to meet your established goals and objectives 69

75 HUNTING LEASES Wayne C. Zahn Lease Manager Lykes Bros. Inc. General Terms Owner- The actual owner of the property which is being leased Tenant- The party entering into the Lease Agreement with the Owner Premises- The physical property covered by the Lease Agreement Term- Length of time covered by the Lease Agreement Purpose and Premises Defines the rights granted under the terms of the agreement Defines the game species which the Tenant is allowed to harvest Provides property location County(s) the property is located Legal description Map(s) Term State both the beginning and termination date and time of Lease Agreement Limit term of agreement Avoid renewal options Rent Statement of rent paid for use of Premises Details payment date(s) Details payment amount(s) Owners Retained Uses and Rights Defines the Owners retained uses and rights Defines the Tenants responsibilities with respect to the Owners retained rights Unauthorized Activities Describe any and all activities prohibited by the lease Establish penalties for performing any of the predefined unauthorized activities 70

76 Membership Number and types of members States the number of members who have access to the property Can allow for employees of Tenant Assigns responsibility of all members to the Tenant Establishes a record of access Management Practices Addresses game management practices Establishes set back distances from property or lease boundaries Maximum Number of Vehicles and Hunters Addresses the number of vehicles permitted on the property Identifies the maximum number of people hunting at any time Establishes guest rules Locks, Keys, and Identification Addresses security Establishes a method to identify hunters Establishes a method to identify authorized vehicles Establishes a fee for lost keys Requires all keys to be returned at termination of the lease Establishes fines for littering and failure to close gates Unauthorized Activities Restricts Tenant from damaging Owners crops Restricts grazing, farming, or other uses of the property Protects the retained rights of the Owner Permanent Improvements Require Owner s approval prior to any permanent improvements Requires Tenant to secure all appropriate permits Requires Tenant to pay any taxes levied on the permanent improvements Permanent improvements are the personal property of the Tenant 71

77 Repairs Requires Tenant to repair any damages to Owner s property caused by the Tenant or members Covers roads, gates, crops, culverts, etc. Limitation of Rights Allows for the Owner to reserve the rights to prospect Limits the Tenant s right to sub-lease or assign the lease to another party or person Restricts the Owner s activities in pursuing its retained rights with respect to the Tenants use of the property Restricts the Tenant from fee hunting Default by Tenant Establishes a notification process for default Establishes a reasonable time for the Tenant to cure the default Allows Owner to terminate lease if the default condition is not cured within the specified time period Owner can terminate the lease any time after a default condition has not been cured Termination in Event of Sale Establishes a minimum time period for Owner to notify Tenant of a sale of the property Allows for the Owner to terminate the lease due to a sale Control of Nuisance Species Identifies nuisance species Allows the Owner to control the identified nuisance species by any means necessary Fire and other Damages Requires Tenant to notify Owner of any damages to the property or equipment Requires Tenant to reimburse Owner for any and all damages caused by the Tenant or member Allows Owner to terminate lease if a fire is the cause of a Tenant or member Harvest Restrictions Establishes minimum size restrictions for harvesting game animals Establishes harvest data requirements 72

78 Exotic Animals Establishes restrictions with respect to exotic species The Owner can limit harvest of certain animals as listed here Waiver and Release Forms Require all persons entering on the Premises to sign a waiver and release agreement A properly worded waiver and release form will afford some legal protection to the Owner if a suit is filed Require all persons to sign a log book showing their date of entrance and departure on the Premises. The log book and signed waivers can establish or dispute a persons claim for damages Require the Tenant to submit all completed waivers to the Owner within some designated time period Liability and Property Damage Insurance Require all Tenants to provide proof of liability insurance The Owner should require proof of both vehicular and general liability coverage Declaration pages should be supplied directly from the insurance carrier providing coverage The Owner may want to acquire the general liability policy and name the Tenant as Additionally Insured, this will ensure there is both sufficient coverage limits and continuous coverage Indemnification of Property Owner This is a statement when incorporated into the lease agreement which assigns responsibility to the Tenant for defending the Owners interest if a legal suit is filed arising from the activities of the Tenant Other Conditions Condemnation Hazardous materials Offensive and unlawful use Compliance with laws and regulations Compliance with terms of Lease Agreement Notices Miscellaneous provisions 73

79 THE PRESERVE PICTURE Fred Fanizzi Managing Partner Quail Creek Plantation Native Bobwhite quail populations in Florida, like many other areas of the South, have declined. Quail hunting preserves have begun to fill the void resulting from decreasing numbers of wild quail available for private and public land hunters. Licensed hunting preserves generally rely on pen-raised birds to enhance quail shooting opportunities. Many of us recall the days of hunting wild bobwhites with our father or grandfather when all that was required was a rough piece of pine and palmetto flatwoods and a reliable set of pointers. If three to five coveys were found in a days hunt, it was enough to satisfy our efforts to enjoy the outdoors and the camaraderie of being afield with family and friends. The new generation of hunters is a different breed. These hunters are fast paced and want to see a lot of birds in a short period of time. The enjoyment of a day afield in pursuit of bobwhite quail in the traditional style of early southern plantations is a highly sought after pastime for many. However, the management and upkeep of a kennel of well trained dogs, the cost of managing owned or leased land, the expense of purchasing and maintaining the proper field hunting transportation, and other inputs makes hunting these critters well out of reach for the vast majority of hunters. Enter the licensed hunting preserve. Preserves have much to offer from the essentials such as well managed grounds, comfortable transportation, plenty of good flying birds to test the skills of dogs, and gunners, all the way up to high end complex operations that offer overnight accommodations with fine dining, training and boarding of dogs, clay target shooting, guides, shooting instructors, and bird cleaning. You name it. Fees for hunting trips can range from $200 to $700 per day, depending on services and amenities. Traditional, old-style plantation hunting may cost as much as $2,000 per day. Hunts are generally booked in advance for either half or full day outings. Instead of the work and expense involved in maintaining all of the requirements for enjoying quail hunting as a leisurely pastime, a sportsman/woman can shop around and locate a good preserve that matches his/her needs and budget. A properly operated commercial quail hunting operation is not only obligated to entertain their guests in style, but must deliver in all areas if the operation is to stay in business, break even or show a profit. Because of this obligation, at a bare minimum, the hunter should find a good number of hard flying birds and a staff that knows how to offer traditional hospitality. Additional services (shooting instruction, clay target shooting, and overnight accommodations) are usually optional. In addition to the basics, shooting preserves offer extended season dates and unlimited bag limits on birds. Most important is the fact that a preserve is a place where hunters are not just permitted but are welcomed, and where the atmosphere revolves around hunting, guns, dogs, birds, and shooting. Most preserves offer hunters the opportunity to bring their own dogs, if they so choose. Many find this a great way to ready their dogs for wild 74

80 birds and to emphasize basic training for a puppy. In addition, preserves are a great place to introduce an adult just taking up hunting or a youngster being introduced to the game. The flip side of our discussion is to cover the basics of establishing a preserve on raw land. Many landowners in the Southeast have turned to preserve hunting as an additional side venture and profitable enterprise to their established agricultural enterprises. Interested parties can begin by setting aside as little as 100 to 200 acres and posting it to be licensed by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Traditional habitat management for wild quail populations, i.e., prescribed burning, roller chopping, food plot establishment, and feed supplementation, may be required for each potential preserve site. Establishment of escape cover such as native palmetto thickets or plantings of sesbania or lespedeza is required. These sites must also provide critical cover from avian predators. The propagation of pen-released quail may be relied on for the majority of the commercial hunting opportunities. An early release program (4 to 8 weeks prior to hunting) or put and take (release just prior to shooting) will be dependent on the amount of hunting pressure and the abundance of predators. Other overhead considerations will include liability policies, cost of guides, cost of transportation equipment, and advertising. Advantages of shooting preserves include the following: The potential of being relatively profitable A long hunting season Instant quality hunting Predictable harvest opportunities Small acreage to manage Disadvantages include the following: Large capital investment High business risk for the operator High management costs Relatively small clientele market Limited availability of qualified employees 75

81 BOBWHITE MANAGEMENT AND HUNTING IN FLORIDA S RANCHLANDS: AN OVERVIEW OF RULES AND REGULATIONS Nick Wiley Director, Division of Hunting and Game Management Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Florida s ranchlands region can provide some exceptional and unique bobwhite quail hunting when the habitat conditions are right. In fact, some landowners in the ranchlands region realize that good bobwhite hunting, particularly for wild birds, is a valuable commodity if marketed and packaged properly. When you combine the exciting action of bobwhite hunting with the impressive scenery and open vistas of Florida ranchlands, landowners know they can provide a very powerful and appealing hunting experience. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) is very committed to helping Florida s landowners further develop and enhance bobwhite quail management and hunting across the state. The FWC recognizes that Florida s ranchlands region is a key area for restoring bobwhite habitats and hunting, and that landowners and land managers in this region hold the future of south Florida bobwhite quail hunting in their hands. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the rules and regulations that provide the legal frameworks for bobwhite hunting on private lands in Florida. This information is intended to help foster understanding of legal requirements and assist landowners and land managers in setting up or improving bobwhite management and hunting programs. The bobwhite quail goes by many names, but the official common name is the northern bobwhite and the official Latin or scientific name is Colinus virginianus virginianus. We have a unique subspecies found only in central and south Florida commonly called the Florida bobwhite or Colinus virginianus floridanus. FWC rules use the title quail, but for the purpose of this paper, we will refer to this prized game bird simply as the bobwhite. SEASONS, BAG LIMITS, AND METHODS OF TAKE In Florida, the bobwhite is legally defined as a game bird and further defined as a resident game bird. Bobwhites also are defined as legal game that may be taken during open seasons established by FWC rules. The open season established for taking bobwhites begins on the second Saturday of November and closes 113 days thereafter every year. For the upcoming hunting season, those actual dates are November 12, 2005 through March 5, For hunters who want to use their muzzleloading gun, bobwhites also may be taken during the nine-day muzzleloading gun season which occurs in mid-october into early November in the south and central parts of the state. 76

82 FWC rules also establish daily bag and possession limits for bobwhites; the daily bag limit is 12 birds, and the possession limit is 24. The legal shooting hours for resident game birds including bobwhites are during the daytime only, between one-half hour before sunrise and one-half hour after sunset. Bobwhites may be taken with shotguns, rifles, pistols, falcons, bows or crossbows, although shotguns are by far the most effective and preferred method of take. FWC rules do not allow use of live decoys, recorded game calls or sounds, set guns, artificial light, net, trap, snare, drug, or poison to take or attempt to take bobwhites. SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING Some managers use supplemental feeding as a tool to enhance bobwhite populations and hunting opportunities. The pros, cons, and recommended methods are beyond the scope of this paper, but it is advisable for managers to research supplemental feeding carefully and develop a sound plan before implementing this management tool. Supplemental feeding for bobwhite management and hunting is permitted under FWC rules. Specifically, FWC rules allow game feeders to be set up and maintained for the purpose of propagating bobwhites under natural conditions on private lands. These rules also allow bobwhites to be hunted or harvested in proximity to game feeding stations, but only where these feeding stations have been maintained at least six months prior to the start of any hunting activities. A game feeding station may be developed in many ways and forms. It can be an actual quail feeder placed on the ground, or it can be an area where feed is scattered over the ground. To comply with this rule and guard against possible disease or predator problems, managers should establish a good number of feeding stations near good escape cover and alternate the use of these stations periodically. BIRD DOG TRAINING Good quality bobwhite hunting depends on having hard working, well trained bird dogs. FWC rules are very responsive and open to providing opportunity for bird dog training on private lands; bird dog training is basically allowed year round. When the bobwhite hunting season is closed, bird dog training is allowed with the aid of a pistol firing a blank or a solid ball. Many managers or dog handlers like to use pen-raised bobwhites to train bird dogs. FWC rules allow this throughout the year, and these penraised birds may be taken by shotgun while training bird dogs provided each bird is banded before being released. Since pen-raised bobwhites can be costly, some managers set up traps or call-back pens to recapture pen-raised birds after training sessions so they can be used again. FWC rules allow this practice if each quail trap is tagged with the name and address of the user and if all pen-raised bobwhites used for this purpose are identified with leg bands showing the name of a licensed game farm, private hunting preserve, or the individual using the birds. And finally, FWC rules require immediate release of any wild bobwhite that may be trapped during the process of trapping pen-raised birds. 77

83 PRIVATE HUNTING PRESERVES FWC rules allow private landowners or lessees to establish and operate private or commercial hunting preserves where bobwhite hunting can be featured. The primary advantages associated with a licensed private or commercial hunting preserve are the ability to charge a commercial fee for bobwhite hunting, longer open seasons, flexibility with regard to individual hunting license requirements, and bag limit exemptions for hunting pen-raised bobwhites. A hunting preserve license is not necessary if the landowner is not charging a commercial fee for bobwhite hunting and only wishes to allow bobwhite hunting within the established open season, within the established individual bag/possession limits, and understands that individual hunters are required to have a state hunting license. The license fee structure for private hunting preserves is established under Florida Statutes. There are two licensing options: 1) a private or basic hunting preserve license and 2) a commercial or blanket hunting preserve. The private/basic license costs $70 annually and provides all the benefits of a licensed hunting preserve except each individual hunting on the property must have a state hunting license ($12.50 each). The commercial/blanket license costs $500 annually in addition to the $70 fee for the private/basic license. Under the commercial/blanket hunting preserve license ($570 total license fee), individuals hunting bobwhites on the licensed property are not required to have a state hunting license. Also, the commercial/blanket license is reserved only for private hunting preserves that are operated exclusively for commercial purposes, are open to the public, and where a uniform fee for hunting is charged to patrons. As indicated earlier, one of the primary benefits of being a licensed hunting preserve is the longer open season for bobwhite hunting. The normal bobwhite hunting season is early November through early March, whereas on licensed private or commercial hunting preserves, the open season for hunting bobwhites is from October 1 through April 20; about two months longer. This option provides increased time and flexibility for scheduling bobwhite hunts, which can be particularly helpful on commercial hunting preserves. Licensed hunting preserves offer other advantages to landowners or managers who wish to supplement or even replace wild bobwhite hunting with released, penraised bobwhite hunting. There are pros and cons associated with use of pen-raised bobwhites and many different techniques to maximize the benefits of using released birds for hunting. These issues are beyond the scope of this paper, and while penraised bobwhites serve a useful purpose, it is important to note that maintaining good quality habitats to sustain healthy populations of wild bobwhites is critical to having a bright future for bobwhite hunting in Florida. With that said, use of pen-raised bobwhites on hunting preserves does allow for more liberal harvests. In fact, there is no bag limit for pen-raised bobwhites taken on hunting preserves, and released birds that are not harvested may be trapped on the 78

84 property for reuse. It is important to note, however, that pen-raised birds must be legbanded if they are being re-trapped or released for hunting outside the established open season for wild bobwhite hunting so they can be distinguished from wild bobwhites. Also, any wild bobwhites that are trapped in association with trapping for pen-raised bobwhites must be released immediately. There are several basic requirements that must be met to obtain a license for a private hunting preserve. The landowner or lessee must complete and submit an application with the appropriate annual license fee to FWC, and the property must then be inspected by FWC. A licensed hunting preserve can be no larger than 10,000 acres. If the property is within one mile of a wildlife management area (WMA), refuge or park, it must be determined that operation of the hunting preserve will not conflict with the management objectives of the WMA, park, or refuge or will not pose adverse impacts to wildlife or public safety. The owner or manger of the WMA, park, or refuge must be notified of the application and given the opportunity to comment on the application or provide recommendations. Once a license is issued, the private hunting preserve is required to follow specific rules and requirements. The property boundaries must be legally posted with signs that indicate the property is a licensed hunting preserve. If pen-raised birds are released for hunting, the operator must maintain documents to demonstrate these birds are in healthy condition and were legally produced at a licensed game farm or preserve. If a quantity of harvested game birds is transported from a hunting preserve, the container must be tagged or labeled with information about the preserve and the game taken. The operator must maintain a registration book and maintain records about each hunter and game taken. These records and the facilities must be open to inspection by FWC personnel upon request. To download a hunting preserve license application or a complete copy of the hunting preserve rules, please visit the FWC website at the following address: TRANSLOCATION OF WILD BOBWHITES There are many areas in Florida where bobwhite populations thrived in the past, but habitat conditions have degraded and bobwhite populations are severely suppressed or absent. In some cases, with proper habitat management, bobwhite populations can be recovered, but it may take several years to reach population levels that can sustain hunting pressure. The FWC is committed to encouraging and supporting the restoration of bobwhite habitats across the state and particularly in the ranchlands region; however, there is no doubt that habitat restoration, particularly to recover bobwhite populations, is expensive and takes a lot of time and effort. For landowners and managers to make the necessary investment, they need to have as much assurance as possible that bobwhite populations will respond to their habitat management efforts, and they need to find ways to reduce the recovery period as much as possible. 79

85 For many years, biologists and managers have searched for ways to jump start bobwhite populations where habitat conditions have been restored but the birds are absent or slow to recover. Study after study has shown that pen-raised bobwhites are not the answer to this challenge. These birds just do not survive well enough in the wild to fuel a bobwhite population recovery in the wild, even in excellent habitat. Recent and ongoing studies suggest, however, that translocation of wild bobwhites may show some promise for accelerating restoration efforts. Translocation is a process where wild bobwhites are trapped from a donor site then relocated and reestablished in restored and well managed habitat. We all still have a lot to learn about how best to trap, relocate, and establish wild bobwhites, and this approach is not suitable in many situations. However, to help provide incentives for restoring and maintaining bobwhite habitat, FWC is willing to work with landowners wishing to consider translocation as a bobwhite population recovery option. It is important to note that a permit from FWC is required to legally trap and relocate wild bobwhites in Florida. FWC is currently in the process of developing the conditions that must be met to be eligible for a permit. It is important to have sound conditions for permitting translocation of wild bobwhites based on the best available science so this highly valuable resource is not wasted in situations where population recovery is not likely. One key condition will be that the applicant for the translocation permit will be responsible for securing a suitable source of wild bobwhites from a donor site. In addition, FWC will be working to determine the minimum size of properties eligible for translocation; specific conditions for donor properties; procedures for trapping, transport, and release of wild birds; post release monitoring; recovery period before hunting; and management plan requirements. FWC is partnering with the University of Florida to develop standardized habitat and quail population assessment and monitoring programs, and to coordinate all translocation projects within Florida. 80

86 PEN-RAISED QUAIL: THEIR USE AND PROBLEMS FOR WILD BIRDS Jim Selph Extension Agent IV, Livestock & Forages DeSoto County Extension Florida Cooperative Extension Service University of Florida A discussion of Pen-raised vs. Wild Quail I believe has to start with an understanding of what makes a good hunt. For everyone, the answer to that question probably is very different. For me, it is based upon my experiences growing up and quail hunting with my dad. When I think about what made those hunts so special, it really was not whether the birds were pen-raised or wild. It was things such as the smell of the canvas top of the jeep, it was a pointer so good that I believed he could find birds in a city parking lot, and it was the noon lunch of Vienna sausage and saltine crackers. Yet for me, if we had been releasing pen-raised birds, I do not believe that the memories and the experiences would be the same. If I had never hunted wild quail, I would not know there is any difference. It is all in the collection of our experiences. How can we use pen-raised birds? What are the positives and negatives? For those individuals without large acreage and suitable habitat for wild birds, then the use of pen-raised birds probably makes sense for them. But, is it the right thing to do? If it is a put and take situation, then there are probably not a lot of problems associated with the practice. If however, we are trying to increase breeding populations by stocking pen-raised birds, then I think we are in a different ball game. Most biologists consider this unjustified and there are possible implications for native quail populations. There is the potential for strongly increasing predation, especially by birds such as hawks and owls. We should also be concerned with introduction of diseases (i.e., pullorum, fowl typhoid, avian pox, quail bronchitis, etc.), food and or breeding mate competition, and displacement of wild birds. I am not sure if there are any detectable differences genetically between pen-raised and wild birds. However, the real differences will be in environmental and learned behavior. Think about how pen-raised birds are hatched, and then compare that thought to a hen setting on the nest and talking to those unborn chicks. Well, talking is probably the wrong term; it is called prenatal auditory or hen contentment calls. Pen-raised quail will often exhibit the following trait differences: Fail to recognize predators and some natural foods Slightly larger size Will fly slower and shorter distances Will not flush as readily Will tend to run more 81

87 Less fear of humans Survival in to the second year is usually less than 1% (about 20% for wild birds) Almost all fail to nest and successfully raise a brood At the time of writing this article, I found that the cost of purchasing pen-raised birds averaged about $3.25 per bird for small numbers of birds, with a discount for larger orders. There is also a difference in price between young and adult, as well as pen-raised and cage-raised birds. When considering whether to use pen-raised birds for hunting, several economic factors should be considered: buying and releasing birds vs. feeding and managing wild birds; costs of owning or leasing large acreages to support wild coveys; and the need for less dogs when hunting pen-raised birds. Many shooting preserves/plantations will augment their harvest by using penraised birds. Some operations will release birds 1-2 months prior to the hunting season. In these situations, birds are often released in coveys of birds. Other operations will release birds the day of or maybe the evening before the hunt, often as singles, pairs, and small groups of 4-6 birds. I think one advantage of using pen-raised birds is that you get to select the habitat they are released in. We typically avoid releasing birds in areas of extremely rough escape habitats in order to avoid losing singles or crippled birds, and make hunting easier on dogs and people. Remember, quail have 3 important habitat requirements: nesting, foraging, and escape. Forget the nesting habitat; these birds will never make it to late spring/early summer to mate/nest. Focus instead on foraging and escape cover habitat that are close to each other. The actual release site should be an open area interspersed with thickets comprised of young trees and shrubs. Also, remember that these birds have been raised behind wire enclosures and have never experienced predators. Covey boxes should be put out early in the morning and left open. Later that day, all boxes should be picked up to avoid leaving scents for predators to be drawn to. The use of a call back caged cock has been used my many to the game managers to help bring back the birds to the covey box. Pen-raised birds will probably exhibit a smaller range (15-20 acres) than will wild birds (up to 40 acres). Keep in mind that pen-raised birds will fly slower and shorter distances than wild birds. The need for escape cover in close proximity will be very important to their survival. What are other considerations for the use of pen-raised quail that you should consider? Over the past several years I have participated in numerous quail hunts where pen-raised birds were utilized. The following are some of my observations about their use: Even birds raised in flight pens will often not fly like a wild quail These short distance hops of flight become dangerous for overzealous bird dogs when hunters are quick to shoot In put and take situations, I have seen dogs go directly to boxes, flags, etc. and point with the expectation that there would be quail there 82

88 Flight patterns can be very erratic, putting hunters and equipment at risk if safety is not uppermost in their minds When dogs are not made to work, I think that their hunting skill is lessened to some degree. My theory here is the harder we work at something the better we get at it and I believe the same for a bird dogs This leads to the last item that I will discuss; the effects of pen-raised birds on the bird dogs. One consistent and significant problem is dogs catching live birds. My experience with this has been that on the next point, the dog does not hold as well and wants to catch birds live again. Some people use them to train their dogs; others will not use their dogs ever on pen-raised birds. I have not seen material on studies done on this aspect of pen-raised birds, but it is a topic that many of you I know are interested in knowing about. 83

89 FEEDING THE HIGH PERFORMANCE BIRD DOG Martin Coffman DVM, Sporting Dog Veterinarian The Iams Company & Eukanuba Modern bird dogs are the product of improved breeding, more sound training methods, and better health care. This triad has combined to produce athletic dogs similar to human Olympic athletes. These performance-bred and-trained animals require specialized nutrition to allow them the best chance to exhibit their skills at maximum levels. Winning big field events in the modern era or just a hard week of hunting requires that no stone be unturned in our quest for success. Updated nutrition is no exception. From fat levels to protein, carbohydrates, and fiber, new science helps owners and trainers feed their dogs in a more efficient manner which leads to better performance. Energy is the key The primary nutritional need of hard hunting bird dogs is for energy, which translates to calories. Tired dogs cannot perform to the best of their ability. The objective of any conscientious owner or trainer is to provide a dog food that will give the maximum energy in a wholesome, nutritious manner. The best way to provide this is with a high-fat product. Fat is the ideal source of energy for the bird dog because it has over twice the calories of carbohydrates or protein per gram. A dog can eat a small amount of high-fat food and get a lot of calories. These calories are crucial to the dog s performance. Dogs under the stress of travel, cold, dampness, and competition often fail to eat a normal or even adequate amount of food. One would think that a hard-working dog would be very hungry and gulp down large quantities of food. Experienced trainers know this is often not the case, and some dogs seem to eat reluctantly while on a handler s truck or on a bird hunting trip out of state. Call it stress or nerves but dogs like the comforts of their own kennel. They eat better at home. This has led trainers to prefer a nutrient-dense dog food, i.e., one that has a lot of nutrition in a small amount of food. This can only be achieved with a high-fat, performance- type food. A 20% fat level is a sound recommendation for the heavily worked bird dog. A lower amount of fat, say 10%, requires the dog to eat almost 20% more food than with the 20% fat diet to keep in the same condition. With many canine athletes, it is difficult to challenge the dog to eat that much extra food throughout hunting season. Why is fat better than carbohydrates? It is common among human athletes to use carbohydrate loading as a means of insuring energy during an event. Eating a lot of pasta the night before a marathon run is a classic example. But with dogs, using carbohydrates, such as starches and grains as a primary energy source for performance does not work so easily. For one thing, the 84

90 dog has to eat about twice as much food if we try to use grain as the energy source because, again, fat has over twice as many calories per bite as carbohydrates. Secondly, research conducted years ago documented that many dogs using highcarbohydrate foods for energy developed excess lactic acid in their muscles, and some even had stiffened gaits as a result. 1 Additional research conducted by the Iams Company recognized that dogs on high-fat diets were better able to burn oxygen, even without extra conditioning. When highly conditioned dogs were fed a normal-fat food and sedentary dogs were fed a highfat food, the dogs fed the high-fat food were better able to utilize oxygen and had more energy to burn. When the sedentary dogs were conditioned as well as fed the high-fat food, their energy burning ability went up even more. 2 Why is this true? It all comes down to a microscopic fuel-burning furnace in the muscle cell called a mitochondrion. This tiny part of the cell uses a complex chemical process called the Kreb s Cycle to provide energy to the bird dog s muscles. In the above research, the sedentary dogs on the high-fat diet had a higher percentage of these little mitochondria in their muscles. This allowed the dogs to burn more oxygen and have more energy. If a trainer combines the advantages of high-fat food with proven conditioning techniques like roading, the dog can perform to the maximum. Type of Fat is Important Too While the level of fat in a performance dog food is important, the source of this fat is significant too. Fat not only provides energy but it also is the source of important fatty acids. Fatty acids make up cell walls, provide nourishment to the skin, and are important in the immune system. Different fat types provide different levels of the various fatty acids used by the dog. The omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids have received the most attention by researchers because they have different inflammatory properties in the dog s tissues (Omega is just a method chemists use to name compounds. It has to do with the structure of the molecule). Generally, omega-6 fatty acids are more inflammatory than omega-3 s. Fatty acids produce substances called eicosanoids (eye-ko-san-oids). These eicosanoids play an important part in injury repair and inflammation. As a result, dogs that have an inflammatory response going on, a red, irritated skin for example, will have high levels of omega-6 eicosanoids in the affected tissues. This can also be true following muscle pulls, joint ailments, and lacerations. Examples of fat sources that are high in omega-6 fatty acids are soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, and safflower oil. Good sources of omega-3 fatty acids are coldwater fish oils, flaxseed oil, and canola oil. On first examination, one might think that since omega-6 fatty acids are more inflammatory, we should exclude them from the 85

91 diet. But inflammation in moderation is an important part of the dog s immune system and some omega-6 fatty acids are essential for good health and a normal response to injury. Since omega-3 fatty acid eicosanoids counteract the inflammatory actions of the omega-6 fatty acid eicosanoids to a degree, scientists have found that the key is to have an adjusted ratio of each fatty acid type in the dog s food. Research completed by Iams Company scientists has documented that for dogs, the ideal ratio of these two fatty acid types is between 5:1 and 10:1 omega-6 to omega-3. To achieve this adjusted level, manufacturing tolerances must be strict, as the levels of the various fat types become crucial. Foods that provide an adjusted ratio will have a guaranteed analysis of the fatty acids on the label documenting the ratio. Some trainers have tried just buying some fish oil capsules for administration to the dog, but this is not a practical method of providing the ideal fatty acid ratio for several reasons. First, it is difficult to give a pill every day to every dog in a typical bird dog kennel. Second, it is difficult if not impossible to get the total dietary fatty acid ratio of between 5:1 and 10:1 using capsules. Third, supplying additional Vitamin E in the diet is necessary with omega-3 supplementation. Vitamin E levels are already enhanced in dog foods with corrected omega-6: omega-3 ratios. And, fourth, omega-3 supplements are expensive. A better approach in the bird dog kennel is to select a food that has the corrected omega-6: omega-3 ratio guaranteed on the label. So, Are Carbohydrates Bad? There is nothing wrong with grain in a dog food. But, each grain has a glycemic index which lists the particular carbohydrate source s ability to raise blood sugar. For example, a diet with rice can stimulate a rapid rise in blood sugar while a diet containing wheat will cause a lower blood sugar level. In the optimal diet for hunting dogs, rice is an excellent carbohydrate source for this reason. The rapid rise in blood sugar can provide quick energy before the dog begins burning fat for stamina and endurance energy. Corn and sorghum (milo) offer slower rising but more level blood sugar levels. Fiber Isn t Filler One of the most common misconceptions about feeding all-age bird dogs (or any dog) is that the fiber is either just filler or not important in the make-up of the food. However, fiber is very active in a dog s intestine and plays a critical role in maintaining intestinal health. Like fat, the source of the fiber used in the food is very important. Fiber ferments in the intestine and some types of fiber provide too much fermentation which can lead to excess gas, while others provide too little fermentation, which can cause constipation and does a poor job of feeding the millions of cells that line the intestine and colon. 86

92 Years ago, when I was in private veterinary practice, it was common to give bird dogs intestinal drugs to calm their bowels and help slow down the loose stool that often occurred just after the breakaway. Now we know that we could have managed that situation more appropriately with a nutritional solution. The ideal fiber source and solution to helping maintain a healthy intestinal tract is one that is moderately fermentable. If the fiber ferments just enough, it produces the right amount chemicals called short-chain fatty acids (These are not the same ones as the omega-6 and omega-3 mentioned earlier). These short-chain fatty acids (SCFA s) supply about 70% of the nutrients (energy) used by the intestinal cells and helps insure a healthy gut. The level of fiber in the food needs to be between 4% and 7%, and it needs to come from a moderately fermentable source like beet pulp. This fermentation level along with the fiber bulk will help insure a quick, clean bowel movement so the dog can spend a minimum time with this task and get back to finding birds. But, What About the Protein? Protein normally gets all the conversation and, to a degree, this recognition is justified. There is substantial evidence that athletes require increased protein. For example, in human athletes, the volume of blood plasma and red blood cells increases with training, suggesting an increased need for protein. Muscle size, density of blood vessels within muscle, and activity of enzymes, which are made from amino acids, the building blocks of protein, all increase with athletic training. In one research project completed by Iams scientists, racing sled dogs were fed diets of 16, 24, 32, and 40% protein. None of the dogs on the 16% protein food made it though the training season without at least one injury serious enough to remove them from training. Dogs fed the 32% and 40% protein foods had no injuries. 2 Having increased levels of protein in the diet makes sense for the competitive bird dog because these dogs are utilizing more protein to make and maintain muscle and body fluids, and for other functions of this nutrient class. Also, there is a small, but significant destruction of muscle tissue during training. This destruction of tissue protein increases the dog s dietary need. Soybeans and corn gluten have been used for decades as a protein source in dog food because of their lower cost. The protein in plants can be quite digestible but high-quality animal source proteins provide superior amino acid balances when compared to vegetable based proteins like soybeans. Animal-based protein can also vary in quality and characteristics like digestibility and amino acid availability. But, in my experience appear to be more beneficial for hunting dogs. Protein quality cannot be conveyed though information presented on a dog food label. Most nutritionists agree that although bird dogs can survive on plant-based protein like soybeans and corn gluten, they thrive on animal-based sources like chicken. 87

93 What About Water? Water is even more important to the big-running bird dog than most owners or trainers think, because much more water is lost during a long run than is commonly thought. In a study done by Iams Company scientists in the early 90 s during the Copper Basin Sled Dog Race, sled dogs required about 2 ounces of water per pound of bodyweight per day. Of course, the sled dogs were working all day covering about 4.3 miles per hour! From these figures, an estimate of one quart of water being lost by a bird dog during a three-hour stake seems accurate. The temperature in the Copper Basin was well below zero, suggesting that dogs need water on a cold day just as much as they do on hot days. Water loss comes from breathing, urinating, and salivating, and even some water is lost in the stool each day. This water loss, coupled with heat from exertion, can be stressful on the athletic bird dog. The temperature of racing Greyhounds after a race can be as high as 106 degrees Fahrenheit with no apparent disturbance in their health or attitude. I have checked my own dogs rectal temperature after an afternoon of hunting and, even on cool days, a temperature of 104 degrees Farienhiet (F) is common. The key is that this temp should decrease to normal levels of 101 degrees F. to 102 degrees F. within 15 minutes. Of course, you can lead a dog to water, but can you make him drink? The best solution is to have clean, fresh water available at all times and to offer small amounts soon after completion of the run. Some dogs may benefit from baited water, i.e., a little Jello or dog food mixed in for flavoring to encourage drinking. So, What Am I Supposed to Feed? Here is a good set of recommendations: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FEEDING PROGRAM FOR A HUNTING OR FIELD TRIAL KENNEL A nutrient-dense diet that allows enough energy in a small quantity of food Animal-based protein source A high-fat, high-energy food A fiber source that promotes intestinal health Excellent taste Convenient to purchase and easy to prepare Stable and safe on the road while traveling from trial to trial Everyone Wants Results When bird dogs are fed a modern, complete high-fat performance food, good results can be expected. During the quail season, a study was conducted by Iams Company scientists at a quail plantation in southwest Georgia. Twenty-three trained English Pointers were randomly divided into two groups, without regard for hunting ability, and fed either of two well-known commercially 88

94 available dog foods: a high-fat performance food* or the food the plantation had been using during previous seasons. The foods were supplied in brown bags with no identification labels, and the handlers were not aware of which dogs were eating which food. The dogs fed the performance food had 55% more finds over the season than the dogs fed the standard food. When adjusted for time hunted, this amounted to the dogs fed the performance food having about one find per hour more than the dogs fed the traditional product. The study also documented that dogs fed the performance type food maintained or gained body weight and condition throughout the hunting season, while dogs fed the standard food lost body weight and condition. The results of this study imply that diet can affect the overall performance of hunting dogs. Since quail season in Georgia can be warm, this research also looked at the effects of the temperature-humidity index on performance of the dogs. On 9 days during the hunting season, this index was rated as high or severe. Despite these warm days, the dogs fed the high-fat diet maintained their superior performance based on more finds per hour compared to dogs fed the lower-fat food. 4 Nutrition is a tool for bird dog owners and trainers, similar to breeding, training, and conditioning. Modern commercial foods can help field trialers and hunters enjoy seeing their dogs perform to their highest level. Increased knowledge about performance dog nutrition will help you to select the best type food for your dogs and your owners dogs. *Eukanuba Premium Performance 1. Kronfield DS: Diet and performance in racing sled dogs. J Am Vet Assoc 1973:162: Reynolds AJ: Effect of diet on performance. The Iams Company Performance Dog Nutrition Symposium, Colorado State University, April, Reinhart G et al: The beneficial role of antioxidants in canine athletes. Proceedings International Canine Sports Medicine Symposium, Orlando FL, January Davenport G et al: Effect of diet on hunting performance of english pointers. Vet Therapeutics Vol 2, No.1, Winter

95 STUDIES OF QUAIL HUNTING EFFICIENCY D. Clay Sisson Albany Quail Project Auburn University School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences Since the spring of 1992 personnel from Auburn University s School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences have been studying wild quail on private plantations in southwest Georgia. Many issues have been studied by monitoring year round samples of radiotagged quail on several properties. Now in our 13 th year, our cumulative sample of radio-tagged quail is well over 7,000. Issues that have been addressed include: annual survival, causes of mortality, habitat use, supplemental feeding, and the effects of nest predator removal. In addition to the habitat management and population ecology questions addressed, an important part of our work over the years has been the study of quail hunting efficiency on these properties. This work has taken several forms which include the following: 1) patterns of covey activity during the hunting season, 2) the efficiency of pointing dogs in locating bobwhite coveys, and 3) the effects of supplemental feeding on covey activity and hunting success. This paper will address each of these topics and conclude with recommendations to improve quail hunting success. PATTERNS OF BOBWHITE COVEY ACTIVITY Understanding the behavior of wild quail coveys and their patterns of activity is the first step to more efficient hunting. A few years ago, we conducted a study in which we radio-tracked 4 coveys of quail six days a week for an entire hunting season. Each day one of the coveys was tracked continuously, recording their location and activity level every 15 minutes from daylight until dark. This produced data for 86 days of continuous tracking and totaled more than 4,200 readings on location and activity levels. During the same time period, the nearby Albany airport was collecting weather data on the same 15 minute time intervals. The most significant information collected was on the activity levels over the course of a day. These results were really about what you would expect, but interesting nonetheless. The highest level of activity occurred early in the morning, usually during the second hour of daylight. This peak level of activity would last for an hour or hour and a half and then taper off until midday when there was usually a three to four hour period of very little activity. Activity levels would then start to pick up some around 3:00, with a second shorter and less pronounced peak later in the day. This same pattern was seen over and over, where a covey would come off the roost and be very active early in the morning, show moderate activity through late morning, and very little activity through midday, with coveys often moving to heavier cover during that time to loaf. Activity did not pick up again until late in the afternoon with another period of movement associated with late afternoon feeding and going to roost. Long distance movements during the course of a day were uncommon with most coveys moving no more than 200 to 300 yards all day and having 90

96 ranges of only 10 to 15 acres for the whole season. Following is a graph showing this typical movement pattern. Average Daily Covey Activity :30 7:30 8:30 9:30 10:30 11:30 12:30 1:30 2:30 3:30 4:30 5:30 6:30 Quail covey movements were influenced by weather. There were some relationships with the movement data when compared to the weather data from the Albany airport. Basically, what we found was that coveys were more active in cold weather, high relative humidity, and light winds. Decreased activity levels were associated with hot weather, low humidity, high winds, and rain. The strongest correlation to a weather variable was very little activity any time an east wind was blowing. While we are not sure why this is, apparently the old saying wind out of the east find birds the least has some merit. Another interesting occurrence was that activity levels tended to increase the day before a change in the weather, suggesting that quail can sense an approaching weather event. In general, the best days for quail activity were cold an overcast with a light wind. Bright, sunny, low humidity bluebird days are pleasant to be out in, but are not especially good for quail activity. Likewise, warm weather or rainy/windy days will decrease activity levels. We suspect that some of these effects of weather would have been more pronounced had not these coveys been receiving supplemental feed. Studies on other species such as deer have shown a reliable food source will moderate the effects of weather on activity patterns and make animals more predictable. The following table shows the general relationships we found. 91

97 HOW WEATHER EFFECTS QUAIL ACTIVITY High Temperature QUAIL ARE INACTIVE Low Humidity Rain East Wind Low Temperature QUAIL ARE ACTIVE High Humidity Light Wind EFFICIENCY OF POINTING DOGS IN LOCATING BOBWHITE COVEYS Another way to increase hunting efficiency is to understand the interactions between coveys of quail and the bird dogs trying to find them. There are a number of factors that work together to influence a dog s ability to find quail. The weather not only affects quail activity levels but scenting conditions for dogs as well. In an effort to better understand these interactions, we spent 8 hunting seasons radio-tracking wild quail coveys as they were being hunted on South Georgia Plantations. During this time, we collected data during over 200 hunts which resulted in over 1100 encounters between radio-tagged coveys, bird dogs, and hunters. This information is presented in the table below. 92

98 EIGHT SEASONS OF QUAIL HUNTING ENCOUNTERS Coveys Seen By Hunters 591 Coveys (53%) Coveys Not Seen By Hunters 515 Coveys (47%) Pointed And Shot Wild Flushes Passed By Pointed Wild Pointed Flushes Not Pointed Ran Held Ran Held 31% 9% 13% 7% 7% 25% 7% 1% Over the course of these 8 seasons and 1106 encounters, hunters averaged seeing just over half (53%) of the encountered coveys. Most instances of coveys being missed were simply because they were passed by and not smelled by the dogs or moved by a member of the hunting party; they simply held their ground and let the hunting party pass by. Many of these coveys were not out feeding, and therefore it was hard for the dogs to scent. It was not unusual for coveys to hold tight and be passed by within only a few yards. The next most common reason coveys were not seen was because they were running away; some of these ran as they heard the hunt coming and some ran away from the dogs after being pointed. Additionally, some coveys were not seen because they flushed wild ahead of the hunting party. Both of these behaviors (running and wild flushing) became worse as the hunting season progressed. Overall, bobwhite coveys showed a remarkable ability to evade hunting parties, with some coveys seeming to be better at it than others. Individual coveys seem to develop their own personality and learn over the course of the season the best way to survive a hunt. No data was recorded for encounters with single birds but some general observations were made. Single birds that have already flown once and wingwashed themselves can be very hard for dogs to find as well as very hard to flush. They seem to know they would be more vulnerable to a predator or gun alone than flushing amidst the confusion of a covey rise. Many single birds are left behind undetected. About 12% of all encounters with radio-tagged coveys ended with a false point. There was a lot of interest during these studies as to what was responsible for these false points. These studies revealed that the majority of times a high quality and experienced dog pointed and no birds were seen was not because they were false pointing; but rather they were pointing where quail had been but had left undetected. Most of this was due to coveys running away from pointing dogs followed by unseen wild flushes that were pointed and an occasional covey that was pointed and held tight during the attempt to flush them. Not long into the study, we stopped calling these 93

99 false points and began calling them unproductive points. The table below shows the number of incidences and percentages of these false points on radio-tagged coveys. INCIDENCES OF FALSE OR UNPRODUCTIVE POINTS POINTED & RAN POINTED & FLUSHED WILD POINTED & HELD % 31% 11% EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING We conducted a series of studies on the effects of supplemental feedings over the years. Initially, we looked at the effects of broadcast spread grain on covey movements, home range size, and survival. These studies were some of the first to demonstrate positive impacts from supplemental feeding on quail. What they showed was that coveys fed through the winter and spring could have smaller home ranges, reduced daily movements, greater survival, better body condition, and an earlier start of the nesting season. This was especially true in years when native foods and cover were scarce, such as following drought summers. This abundant and reliable food (usually corn and Milo) allowed birds to fill up quickly so they were not exposed to predators for very long. Birds relying on native feeds in years when it was scarce did not have this luxury and thus had larger home ranges, increased daily movements, lower survival, deteriorating body condition, and a later start to the nesting season. The next phase of this work was to examine how all these interactions affected hunting success and hunting quality. We conducted a series of field experiments looking at how feeding and different feeding methods effected the interactions between radio-tagged coveys and hunters. These studies lasted 4 years and resulted in over 500 encounters with radio-tagged coveys. What we found was that the unfed coveys actually had a greater chance of being found by hunters (65%) than did the fed coveys (50%). This occurred for the same reasons that made unfed coveys more vulnerable to predators increased daily movements and larger home range size. This information contributed to GA DNR s policy of not considering hunting quail that were being supplementaly fed as baiting. The comparison between broadcast spreading verses ground feeders revealed no significant difference in home range size, survival, or hunting success between these two feeding methods. There was a difference in the hunting quality however as coveys tended to be wilder around feeders and the 94

100 percentage that was pointed and shot was very low. The figure below shows these relationships. Hunting Success by Feeding Method No Feed Spread Feed Feeders % coveys seen % pointed & shot TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL QUAIL HUNTING As a result of the above combined work, we have developed a list of recommendations to improve quail hunting efficiency with pointing dogs. 1) GET OUT EARLY most afternoon hunts overlap periods of increasing quail activity and improving scenting conditions while the opposite is true in the morning unless you get out early 2) TRUST YOUR DOGS their noses tell them things we have no way of knowing 3) BE PERSISTENT most coveys are where they are supposed to be or very near to where you found them before 4) GET TO THE POINT many coveys go unseen or are missed being shot at from hesitation getting to the pointing dog; get there quick 5) MAKE A GOOD FLUSHING ATTEMPT especially for single birds, some that are pointed are never flushed 6) RELOCATE FOR RUNNERS if your flushing attempt fails take plenty of time to relocate, most false points are a result of birds running away from a dog 95

101 7) THINK LIKE A QUAIL put yourself in their place and look for a likely escape route or try and remember how they evaded you last time 8) BE UNPREDICTABLE don t always hunt the same route the same time of day; try to catch them off guard by mixing things up 9) SUPPLEMENTALY FED BIRDS ARE HARDER TO FIND but you can have more of them; if you do so, we recommend spreading feed year round 10) DON T TAKE IT PERSONAL they re only trying to survive long enough to breed and provide a crop of birds for next season 96

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103 COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, INSTITUTE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, Larry R. Arrington, Director in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, publishes this information to further the purpose of the May 8 and June 30, 1914 Acts of Congress; and is authorized to provide, research, educational, information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. 98