DIET SELECTION OF SNOW LEOPARD (Uncia uncia) IN CHITRAL AREA.

Transcription

1 DIET SELECTION OF SNOW LEOPARD (Uncia uncia) IN CHITRAL AREA. RUKHSANA KHATOON 05-arid-359 Department of Wildlife Management Faculty of Forestry, Range Management and Wildlife Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi Pakistan 2010 i

2 DIET SELECTION OF SNOW LEOPARD (Uncia uncia) IN CHITRAL AREA. By RUKHSANA KHATOON (05-arid-359) A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Wildlife Management Department of Wildlife Management Faculty of Forestry, Range Management and Wildlife Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi Pakistan 2010 ii

3 CERTIFICATION I hereby undertake that this research is an original one and no part of this thesis falls under plagiarism. If found otherwise, at any stage, I will be responsible for the consequences. Name: Rukhsana Khatoon Registration No. : 05-arid-359 Signature: Date: Certified that the contents and form of the thesis entitled Diet selection of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) in Chitral area submitted by Rukhsana Khatoon have been found satisfactory for the requirement of the degree. Supervisor: (Prof. Dr. Iftikhar Hussain) Co-Supervisor: (Dr. Muhammad Ali Nawaz) Member: (Dr. Tariq Mehmood) Member: (Dr. M. Sajid Nadeem) Date of Viva Voce: External Examiner: Chairman: Director Advanced Studies: iii

4 In The Name of Allah, The Beneficent, The Merciful iv

5 To v

6 CONTENTS Title List of Table List of Figures List of Plates List of Abbreviations Acknowledgments Page Viii ix x xii xiii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS STUDY AREA Location Climate Topography and vegetation Wildlife SAMPLING Storage and Handling of Samples Reference collection SCAT ANALYSIS Segregation of Scat samples Whole mount of hairs Scale replication of hairs Analysis of Reference material vi

7 3.4 Microphotography Photography Magnification Calculation Magnification of the Negative Magnification of the Positive Total magnification Identification STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Chi Square ( ²) 4. RESULTS Diet composition Biomass consumption Seasonal variation Identification of bones 30 5 DISCUSSION Limitations 58 SUMMARY RECMENDATION LITERATURE CITED APPENDICES vii

8 LIST OF TABLES Table. No. Page 4.1 Composition (%) of the Snow leopard s diet in Chitral, Pakistan Calculation of Biomass consumption (kg) by snow leopard in Chitral Pakistan 4.3 Seasonal variations in the diet of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) in Chitral. 4.4 Percentage of occurrence of Bones in Snow leopard scats in Chitral, Pakistan. 5.1 Comparison of percent frequency of occurrence of different prey items in Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) scat From Chitral, Pakistan against reports from other regions viii

9 LIST OF FIGURES Fig. No. 3.1 Administrative map of District Chitral. Page 17 (Courtesy: Snow leopard trust foundation, Islamabad) 3.2 Average monthly temperatures ( C) during Jan (Courtesy: Pakistan Meteorology Department, Islamabad) 3.3 Average monthly Rainfall (mm) in Chitral from (Courtesy: Pakistan Meteorology Department, Islamabad) 4.1 Seasonal variations in the diet of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) Depredation of goats by Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) in Chitral 56 ix

10 LIST OF PLATES Plate. No. 1 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Domestic Sheep (Ovis Page 33 aries) 2 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Palm civit (Paguma 34 larvata) 3 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Cape Hare (Lepus 35 capensis) 4 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Turkistan Rat (Rattus 36 turkistanicus) 5 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Common Red fox 37 (Vulpes vulpes) 6 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Marmot (Marmota 38 caudata) 7 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Pika (Ochotona roylei) 39 8 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Hamster (Cricetulus 40 migratorius) 9 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Flying squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus) Microphotographs of various hair structure of Monkey (Macaca 42 mulatta) 11 Microphotographs of various hair structure of House mouse (Mus 43 musculus) x

11 12 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Wood mouse 44 (Apodemus rusiges) 13 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Mountain vole 45 (Alticola roylei) 14 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Markhor (Capra 46 falconeri) 15 Microphotographs of various hair structure of Yak (Bos grumniens) Microphotographs of various hair structure of Goat (Capra hircus 48 domesticus) xi

12 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS C Degree Centigrade g cc SLT km² mm PMNH Grams Cubic Centimeter Snow Leopard Trust Foundation Square Kilometer Millimeters Pakistan Museum of Natural History % Percent KP PMD DPX Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa Pakistan Metrological Department Distrene plasticizer xylene xii

13 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All praises to Almighty Allah alone, The Compassionate and The Merciful, who blessed me the courage to get higher education and to complete this manuscript. In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and The Most Merciful, The Creator, The Most Supreme whose mercy enabled me to accomplish this task and bestowed me with success. Blessing of Allah on Holy Prophet, Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him), and blessing of Allah on the Family of Holy Prophet, Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) whose teachings life as a role model have served us as beam of light for the humanity in the hours of despair and darkness. I feel great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Iftikhar Hussain, Chairman, Department of Wildlife Management, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, whose insightful feedback and personal interest were always with me and ever encouraging behavior to work hard without which it remained a dream of childhood. Very special thanks are due to Snow leopard foundation Islamabad for procurement of samples and providing the necessary research facilities. I feel great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to my co-supervisor Dr. Ali Nawaz, (Snow leopard foundation), for encouraging behavior and constructive guidance during the completion of this task. xiii

14 I would like to thank Dr. Tariq Mehmood, Professor, Department of Wildlife Management, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, for the valuable suggestions and comments during the write-up of this thesis. Deep indebtedness and cordial thanks are also due to Dr Muhammad Rafique (PMNH) and for extending cooperation and generous help during the research and procurement of reference samples. I would also like to thank the following (in no particular order): Nasra Ashraf, Misbah Sarwar, Shoaib Hameed and Sara Shabbir for their help and suggestions. Finally, I would like to express my greatest gratefulness to my loving parents and brother (Muhammad Kaleem) for their affection, kindness and prayers that encouraged me to achieve success in every sphere of life. I also appreciate valuable assistance of my husband who encouraged me to undertake this task. Rukhsana Khatoon xiv

15 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is a member of the family Felidae. It has a gray coat with black spots and rosettes, and a white belly. Body length ranges from cm with a tail of length cm. It stands about cm at shoulders (Robert, 1997). Females weigh 35 to 40 kg and males 45 to 55 kg. The luxuriant spotted pelage is whitish gray tinged with yellow and contains dark, open, or otherwise indistinct rosettes and spots. Adaptations for mountain life include large forepaws, short limbs, well developed chest muscles, long hair with dense under fur, and the long tail that can be used to keep the animal warm while at rest. It is generally solitary, although groups of up to six snow leopards have been reported presumably these groups consist of a female and her nearly independent young, and possibly a male (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). Snow leopard inhabits the high mountainous regions of central and south Asia. Generally it is found at an altitude ranging from 3000 m to 4000 m. However, it may descend as low as 1500 m during winter (Schaller, 1977). Snow leopard inhabits comparatively arid alpine regions, dominated by oak and spruce forests. The terrain used by snow leopard is typically extremely rugged occupying approximately an area of 1,230,000 square kilometers. Globally, this habitat extends through 12 countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). ii

16 Snow leopard has a wide distribution in Northern Pakistan. It occurs sparsely in northern Chitral and Baltistan. It inhabits the arid alpine regions of inner Himalaya where both snowfall and rainfall is scant. These include Chitral, Dir, Swat and Kohistan districts of Khyber-Pakhtoonkhawa, Gilgit and Baltistan districts of Northern Areas (NA) and Muzaffarabad district in Azad Jammu & Kashmir (Roberts, 1977; Ahmad, 1994). Robert (1977) estimated that a total of about 80,000 km 2 area is available for snow leopard habitat in Pakistan.. The Chitral valley provides ideal growing conditions for at least 64 endemic plant species. Chitral s flora is similar to that of Central Asia, and comprises forest types including moist alpine pastures, sub-alpine birch, moist deciduous alpine scrub, and dry temperate coniferous scrub, dry oak which is the potential habitat for snow leopard (NWFP and IUCN Pakistan, 2004). The total estimated wild population of the snow leopard is between 3,500 and 7,000 individuals in the world (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). The number of snow leopard in Pakistan has been estimated to (Schaller, 1976). Malik (1997) reported that the population of this cat could be of 400 animals. It is considered to be rare with usually no more than two or three animals frequenting a particular valley at intervals. Based on an extrapolation of census data for Chitral, Schellar (1977) estimated a population of less than 250 animals. Snow leopard has a critical role in ecosystem and serves as an indicator species for Asia's high mountain ecosystems, as it resides at the top of the food chain, requires large home ranges, moves over vast areas and flourishes under 2

17 pristine conditions. It is also a flagship species around which people rally support for far reaching conservation initiatives. By protecting snow leopards, one also protects habitat for a host of other plant and animal species. Where the snow leopard occurs in good number, the environment is considered to be more productive and healthy. Snow leopards keep other species numbers down and also improve their own species genes from adaptions to not being eaten (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). The increasing interface between humans and large carnivores is resulting in a world-wide escalation of human-carnivore conflicts (Madhusudan & Mishra 2003). According to Ahmed (1994), main threats to the population of snow leopard in Pakistan are poaching, loss of natural prey, loss of habitat (over grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection), lack of awareness, and over population. In addition, fur trade,conflict with grazer communities and reduction of natural prey also pose serious threats to this species. Kheyber Pakhtunkhawah (KP) Wildlife Department received 59 claims for the losses of 303 livestock head mostly sheep and goat form Chitral and other parts of KP in a period of ten years. Depredation surveys from 2001 to 2008 divulge total losses of 138 domestic animals (average per year) affecting 102 families (average 13 families per year). This indicates the existence of human-predator conflict, which is also reflected by the retaliatory killing being the major threat in the area (Din, 2005). Other threats are poaching, loss of natural prey, loss of habitat (over grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection), lack of awareness, and over population. 3

18 The situation creates an alarming threat to snow leopard as people tempt to kill the cat in retribution (Malik, 1997). The IUCN Red Data Book lists the Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) as a globally endangered species (IUCN, 2002). In Chitral Gol National Park the status of snow leopard changed from Tenuous security to seriously threaten by 1974 as a result of hunting (Schaller, 1976). The snow leopard enjoys complete legal protection in Pakistan. The Government of KP, Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir have included the snow leopard in the third schedule of their respective Wildlife Acts and have given it a status of protected animal (Ahmad, 1994). An adult snow leopard requires approximately kcal per kg of its body weight per day as determined by the mass-energy equation developed by Kleiber (1975). In a similar study, Emmons (1987) reported this requirement to be g of food per kg body weight per day. Jackson and Ahlborn (1988) calculated daily requirement for snow leopard as approximately 1.5 to 2.5 kg of meat. The snow leopard is an opportunistic predator capable of killing prey up to three times its own body weight. Its main prey are blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Asiatic ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), argali (Ovis ammon) other domestic stock like sheep and goats, marmots (Marmota spp.), pikas (Ochotona spp.), hares (Lepus spp) small rodents, and game birds (snowcocks, Tetraegallus and chukar partridge) (Jackson et al., 2008). 4

19 Chundawat and Rawat (1994) in Ladakh, India performed scat analysis which showed that snow leopards ate considerable amounts of plant matter. The scat analysis also showed the predominance of one plant species (Myricaria germanica) in the diet which accounted for 65 percent of all the plant matter and 25 scats were composed of only this species. The annual prey consumption by snow leopard based on 2 kg/day, including five blue sheep, twenty five marmots, five domestic goats, one domestic sheep, nine Tibetan woolly hare and fifteen birds. In terms of biomass consumed they estimated 50 percent blue sheep which was the major prey species consumed by snow leopard. Knowledge of a predator s diet is very important to understand its ecology and for predicting its influence on the dynamics of prey populations. The food habits of mammalian predators are difficult to analyze because of the problems faced by researchers in observations of feeding behavior of solitary and elusive species like snow leopard. An important limitation of analysis of food habits by observations of feeding behavior is prey size as the large prey items are easily detected while smaller ones are completely consumed and are difficult to detect. One way to avoid such problems is to coincide the analysis of stomach contents along with observations of feeding behavior. However, latter are seldom available for endangered species like snow leopard. Therefore analysis of prey remains in scats is often the only method available for the investigators to study the diet of mammalian predators (Oli, 1993). Common problem in fecal analysis of mammalian predator is that more obvious characteristics of the prey consumed are lost in the process of mastication and digestion. Therefore, hard part in the prey 5

20 remains such as bones, teeth and hairs are usually considered for study. Large bones and teeth are generally fragmented and are of little importance but the hair suffers little in the process of digestion and retains many identifiable features. So the identification of remains in particular hairs has been reliably used in the dietary studies of a wide range of mammalian carnivores (Oli, 1991). Present study is also based on identification of remains particularly hairs in scats of Snow leopard to understand the feeding ecology of this endangered species. In this study the scats of the snow leopard were collected from its habitat on the different sites in Chitral district, examined to sort out the required remnants of the prey eaten by it. The cuticular scale patterns of the hairs taken out from the scats were used for identifying the mammalian prey. Due to extensive hunting populations of wild ungulates have been declined and predation pressure has been shifted on domestic livestock including Yak, sheep and goat. Many studies on food habit of snow leopard have been conducted in countries falling in its distribution range i.e. in Ladakh, India by Chundawat and Rawat (1994); in Gir forest, India by Mukherjee et al. (1994); in Nepal by (Oli et al., 1993) and in Qinghai, China by Schaller et al. (1988). However, such information are unavailable from major habitat/distribution range of snow leopard in Chirtal areas of Pakistan. In Pakistan only one study has been conducted by Anwar (2006) in Baltistan, the eastern most region of the federally administered Northren area of Pakistan, which comprises the central Karakoram and western Himalayan mountain ranges. So very limited information are available on this vital 6

21 aspect of snow leopard habit in Pakistan. The present study has been conducted in Chitral, Pakistan with the aim of enriching our knowledge about the food habit of snow leopard which may help in conserving this species. The present study will also show the dependence of snow leopard on wild prey versus domestic livestock as a food. This study will also help to estimate the highest livestock loss tends to occur in the areas due to which human and snow leopard conflict arises. As food selection varies according to the environment and availability of prey species therefore a diet study in local context would help to improve understanding of feeding ecology, and also provide scientific basis for effective conservation measures. The objectives of the present study are To determine the food preference of snow leopard in wild To determine seasonal variation in selection of food by snow leopard. 7

22 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The snow leopard is categorized as endangered in the 2002 IUCN Red list (IUCN, 2002). According to Ahmed (1994) snow leopard faces problems of survival caused by fur trade, conflict of grazer communities and due to reduction of natural prey. Jackson (1979) found that throughout its range the snow leopard is persecuted by local farmers because of its predation on their domestic livestock and retaliatory killing of the snow leopard by farmers as the biggest threat to the survival of the species in the wild. According to Roberts (1997) the major prey species of snow leopard in Pakistan is Ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), Markhor, marmots (Marmota caudata), Pikas (Ochotona roylei), and cape hares. In Pakistan a recent study has been conducted by Anwar (2006) on food habit of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) in Baltistan. He reported in his study that large mammals (Sheep, Goat, Ibex and Markhor) are the most important prey species of snow leopard in Baltistan making up of 58.3 % of the biomass consumed while rodents are making up 7.24% in snow leopard diet and are also significantly important in its diet. Fox and Chundawat (1988) conducted study on snow leopard in Hemis National Park, India and found that generally it hunts Ibex, blue sheep, Tahr and other mountains herbivores, but in winter when the snow leopard moves into lower altitudes it preys on animals such as deer, wild boar and hare. Another detailed 8

23 study was conducted by Chundawat and Rawat (1994) in Ladakh, India by performing scat analysis which showed that snow leopards ate considerable amounts of plant matter. The scat analysis showed the predominance of one plant species (Myricaria germanica) which accounted for 65 % of all plant matter. While the annual prey consumption by snow leopard based on 2 kg/day which was estimated to be 5 blue sheeps, 25 marmots, 5 domestic goats, one domestic sheep, nine woolly hairs and fifteen birds. They analyzed 173 scats. They found that among all the prey, blue sheep remains were most frequent (23 %) followed by domestic sheep and goats. In another study Mukherjee et al. (1994) determined the minimum number of hairs that need to be examined per scat and the minimum number of scats required for estimating leopard (Panthra pardus) diet in Gir forest, India. He used the same characterstics of hairs to identify the prey species which are used in current study. He detected multiple prey species from analysis of 20 hairs. Forty eight percent of the scats were found containing single prey species while the rest of the scats had remained multiple prey species. Ramakrishnan et al. (1999) studied populations of common leopards and tigers in the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, India. He concluded his results by using the scat analysis and studied microscopic structure of hairs in scats and reported that black-napped hare (Lepus nigricollis), rat (Rattus rattus), pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), munjacdeer (Muntiacus muntjak), and porcupine (Hystrix indica) were markedly more abundant in the leopard diet. 9

24 Bagchi and Mishra (2006) studied the dependence of Snow leopard on domestic livestock by assessing its diet in two different regions in Trans- Himalayan region in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India. Diet of snow leopard was assessed from undigested remains in scats. Snow leopard scats, identified on the basis of shape, size and associated signs like scrapes and pugmarks, were collected from ridges and cliffs between November 2001 and May They reported that in Kibber, Spiti, India wild prey contributed 42% of the snow leopard s diet while domestic livestock contributed 58%. Donkeys, horses, yaks and other cattle contributed substantially to the snow leopard s diet. Similarly in Pin valley Spiti, India they estimated 95 scats of snow leopard and found that wild prey contributed 60 percent of snow leopards diet while domestic prey constitutes 42 percent. While Ibex (57%) was the major prey species of the diet. Dependence on livestock was still considerable especially on horses. Maheshwari and Sharma, (2010) in a most recent study conducted in India performed scat analysis to assess the food habits of snow leopard. Prey species were identified on the basis of hair remains in the scats after examining their unique cuticle and medulla pattern under a microscope. A total of six prey species were identified in the scats. Scat analysis showed that 36% of snow leopard diet comprised of domestic livestock (mule, goat and sheep) followed by blue sheep (18.2%) and rodents (18.2%). 10

25 Another study conducted by Maheshwari et al. (2010) in Kargil and Drass areas of Jammu and Kashmir. The nine scats were identified of snow leopard and analysed for assessing food habits. A total of seven prey species were identified on the basis of unique medullar and cuticle pattern of the hair. Among the nine scats, five scats were comprised of single prey, three scats of two preys and one scat of three prey species. Asiatic ibex contributed towards 28% of the diet followed by rodent and cow of 11% each. Schaller (1977) and Jackson (1979) found Bharal in at least fifty percent of the snow leopard scats analyzed from the Nepal Himalayas as well as livestock. Jackson and Ahlborn (1984) in west Nepal reported that Ibex (Capra ibex), bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), and possibly Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), were the main prey of snow leopard in the Himalaya although livestock (especially sheep & goats) are important food items in areas depleted of native prey. Similarly Other prey species reported includes takin (Budorcas taxicolor), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), markhor (Capra falconeri), urial (Ovis orientalis), argali (Ovis ammon), musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), hares (Lepus spp.), marmot (Marmota spp.), monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus), chukor (Alectoris chukar), and snowcock (Tetraogallus spp.) Jackson and Ahlborn (1988) found that Bharal were the primary large prey of Snow leopards in the Langu valley, west Nepal although Himalayan tahr were taken as well. Sub-adult snow leopards of about 20 kg were known to kill fully 11

26 grown male bharal weighing over 55 kg indicating that snow leopard can subdue prey up to nearly three times its weight. Preliminary scat analysis indicated that the animal also consumed small rodents and pikas, as well as game birds. Oli et al. (1993) conducted a study on food habit of snow leopard in Annupurna conservation area, Nepal.They collected 213 scats between April 1990 and February Seven species of wild and five species of domestic mammals were taken. It was concluded that blue sheep as the most frequently eaten prey as its hairs were detected in 51.6% of the scats. Himalayan marmots were also the most important prey recorded as 20.7 % except in winter when they were hibernating. The most preferable prey of snow leopard during winter was found to be Royles pika (Ochotona roylei) constituting 16 % of scats and domestic livestock. So seasonal difference occur in snow leopard diet. Yaks were eaten more frequently than other livestock types. Similarly small stones and soil were found in 5.6 % of scats and two consisted of more than 50% of these materials. Similar a study was conducted by Oli (1993) in the same study site of Annupurna conservation area, Nepal. In this study the author developed a key for the identification of mammals of snow leopard (Uncia uncia) habitat in Nepal. He studied the prey remains in scats, particularly hairs, which are widely used to study diet of mammalian predators. According to him identification of hair is often difficult because hair structures vary considerably within species. Use of photographic reference of diagnostically important hair structures from mammals occurring in a predator s habitat has been found to be convenient for routine 12

27 identification. So a photographic reference key was developed for the identification of hairs of the mammals known to occur in a snow leopard (U. Uncia) habitat. He concluded that most valuable aid in the identification of the unknown hair was cross-sectional detail, ratio of medulla to cortex, distribution of pigments and pattern and arrangement of medulla. In a later study, Oli (1994) estimated relative biomass consumed by the snow leopard in the Manang District, of Annupurna conservation Area, Nepal. He concluded that blue sheep were the most important prey; marmots (Mormota himalayana) were also found to be present in the diet of snow leopard. In manang snow leopard harvest 9-20 percent of total biomass of blue sheep annually. In a recent study Lovari et al. (2009) recorded signs of snow leopard presence and scats were collected along a fixed trails to study the presence and food habit of snow leopard in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal from They reported that there was seasonal difference in the diet of Snow leopard. According to this study Himalayan Tahr, the staple of the diet had a relative occurrence of 48 % in summer and 37 % in autumn, compared with the next most frequent prey, musk deer (summer 20 % and autumn 15 %) and cattle (summer 15 % and autumn 27 %). Rajaratnam et al. (2006) conducted study on leopard cat in Sabah, Malaysia and perform scat analysis to investigate diet of leopard cat. They reported results in terms of frequency of occurrence of prey species. They differentiated scats of 13

28 leopard cats by shape, size and presence of tracks. Prey remains in the scats were identified by microscopic comparison of hairs with reference collection. The authors identified hairs on the basis of cuticular scale patterns. In the present study similar characteristic of hair was taken as an aid to identify the prey species in the diet of snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Another study was conducted by Zhiijakov (1990) in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstanian. He concluded that Snow leopards prey mainly on ungulates (78.1 %), particularly the Siberian ibex (Capra ibex sibirica). Rodents also occupied a significant place in the snow leopard's diet (11.9 %), which consisted mostly of marmots (Marmota baibacina), and less often of squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris exalbidus) and moles (Microtus sp). Ackerman et al. (1984) studied the food habit of Cougars in Utah. Contents of scats were presented both as frequency of occurrence (percentage of total scats in which an item was found) and percent occurrence (number of times a specific item was found as percentage of all items found). The authors identified scats of Cougar on the basis of size, color, and location and also determined the seasonal differences in diet. In this study 239 scats were analysed during the study and estimated that 112 animals were consumed as prey. They performed 14 feeding trials on captive Cougars and regression of biomass consumed per scat produced against prey weight resulted in the form of linear realationship Y= X, where Y is the weight of prey consumed per scat and X is prey body weight. Since snow leopard and Cougar (Felis concolor) are comparable, so this equation is mostly used by researchers in food habit study of snow leopard for calculation of 14

29 biomass consumed. So in the current study same equation is used to calculate biomass and frequency of occurrence is also calculated by following the same study. 15

30 Chapter 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 STUDY AREA Location: The present study has been conducted on scat samples collected from Chitral area (35 51 N, E), northern most district of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province, formally known as North West Frontier Provience (NWFP) of Pakistan. The area is spread over sq. km. (PMD data, ). Potentially important habitats of snow leopard in Chitral were surveyed for scats collections. The survey areas included Zewar Gol, Chitral Gol National Park, Tooshi Game Reserve, and Girat Gol Climate: The climate of Chitral is distinctly continental. It is hot in summer, ranging from very hot in low lands to warm in the uplands and cool in the higher elevations. Spring weather is unpredictable with frequent rain and snowfall. Winters are cold and the town of Chitral is prone to cold winds from the northwest, particularly during the months of December and January (Mirajuddin, 2008). 16

31 Figure 3.1 Administrative map of District Chitral Since Chitral is surrounded by mountains, it does not receive the monsoon rains. Average rainfall in year 2009 was recorded as approximately 650 mm. Summer and autumn are dry, with the area receiving barely mm of rain per 17

32 month. While according to the data provided by Pakistan metrological department mean rainfall from January 2010 to May 2010 was recorded as approximately 10 mm (Fig 3.3). Maximum and minimum temperature of Chitral area in year 2009 was recorded as C and 0-18 C while in the year 2010 from January to May maximum and minimum temperature ranges from C and -0.6 to 11 C (Fig 3.2) Topography and vegetation: The area has a rugged topography with more than 40 peaks over 6,100 m packed in an area of 14,850 km 2, altitudes in this rugged terrain range from 1,094 m at Arandu to 7,726 m at Tirichmir. Chitral is the land of the three precipitous mountain ranges, Hindukush with towering Terichmir (7700 m) in the West, Hindu Raj is to the East with numerous peaks of over 6096 m and the Karakurum range crossing by the famous Shandur pass at 3725 m (the highest polo ground in the world). Land access beyond the valley is restricted to a few passes; all situated above 3,500 m. Chitral valley provides ideal growing conditions for at least 64 endemic plant species. 18

33 Max Min Temperature (c) Jan- 09 Feb- 09 Mar- 09 Apr- 09 May- 09 Jun- 09 Jul- 09 Aug- 09 Sep- 09 Months Oct- 09 Nov- 09 Dec- 09 Jan- 10 Feb- 10 Mar- 10 Apr- 10 May- 10 Figure 3.2: Average monthly temperatures during Jan Average monthly Rainfall ( ) Rainfall (mm) Jan- 09 Feb- 09 Mar- 09 Apr- 09 May- 09 Jun- 09 Jul- 09 Aug- 09 Sep- 09 Oct- 09 Nov- 09 Dec- 09 Jan- 10 Feb- 10 Mar- 10 Apr- 10 May- 10 Months Figure 3.3: Average monthly Rainfall in Chitral from (PMD, ). 19

34 Chitral s flora is similar to that of Central Asia, and comprises forest types like moist alpine pastures (Astragalus, Corydalis, Oxytropis, Polygonum, Potentilla, Primula, Saxifraga), sub alpine birch (Birch, willow, juniper), moist deciduous alpine scrub (Birch, honeysuckle, juniper, wild rose.berberis, Ephedra), dry temperate coniferous scrub (Artemisia,, Delphinium, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides, Haloxylon, Hyoscyamus niger, Rheum, Tamararix) and dry oak (Artemisia, Caragana, Capparis Cotoneaster, Cymbopogon, Daphne, Ephedra, Heteropogon, Lonicera, Periploca, Plectranthus, Rumex, Sophora, and Spiraea) Wildlife: Chitral area falls in the Hindu Kush mountain range and mostly comprises of arid alpine habitats with good population of wild ungulates i.e. markhor and ibex along with game birds, wild hares, and marmots ( Din, 2005). There are about 45 mammal species recorded from Chitral area which accounts for about half of all mammals recorded in the whole of KP province. The mammal species found in the region include Markhor (Capra Falconeri), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), Pallas cat (Felis manul), Royle s pika (Ochotona roylei) and wolf (Canis lupus), as well as two species of bat. And some endangered species are also present including common red fox (Vulpes vulpes), brown bear (Ursus arctos), Asiatic or Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), stone marten (Martes foina) yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula) Himalayan palm civet (Paguma larvata), stoat or ermine (Mustela ermine), common otter (Lutra lutra), lynx (Felis lynx), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), While some species of 20

35 reptiles such as the Himalayan pit viper (Gloydius himalayanus), Indian krait (Bungarus fasciatus), Indian monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Indian softshell turtle (Aspideretes leithii), Oxus cobra (Naja oxiana) and saw scaled viper (E. carinatus) are also found in Chitral. (NWFP and IUCN Pakistan, 2004). 3.2 SAMPLING: A total of 56 snow leopard scats were collected whenever found from the various study areas (Zewar Gol, Chitral Gol National Park, Tooshi Game Reserve, and Girat Gol) from January month 2008 to December month Scats were collected by an experienced team of Snow Leopard Foundation, Pakistan (SLT). The samples were divided into two seasons; summer and winter. Summer samples were collected in April-August, while winter samples were collected from September through December. These scats were collected by using guidelines defined in Jackson and Hunter (1995) that maximize the likelihood of them in fact coming from snow leopard (e.g. close association with one or more scrapes or fresh pugmarks, placement in steep terrain, especially at the base of a cliff or along its crest or at known hill). Major travel routes and marking sites of snow leopard in the study area were particularly targeted in surveys to collect only fresh snow leopard scats. The scats were collected in polythene bags with tags having information about date and site of collection. Date and the sample identity were recorded on the paper-bag, on a note inserted in the bag and a note book 21

36 dedicated to the work, using a waterproof pen. This minimizes the chances of errors occurring later, making the location or collection date questionable Storage and handling of samples: Initially, samples were sun dried and stored in polythene bags till further analysis. The scat was then washed with tap water in a fine cotton cloth. Each sample was further cleaned with 3 cc carbon tetrachloride and dried between absorbent papers for detail examination. For making slides, hairs were randomly selected from each of the scat for examination of cuticle scales patterns. The remaining samples were kept in case more hairs are required later Reference collection Reference hair samples were collected from both wild (i.e markhor, ibex, mormot, pika etc) and domestic (sheep and goat) mammals which are known to occur in and around the study area. Hairs were collected in complete tufts from different body parts which included a representative sample of all hair types. Hairs of some species, particularly of small mammals were provided by the Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad (PMNH). A photographic reference key was developed which is used to identify the prey species recovered in scats of snow leopard. All potential mammalian and some rodent prey species inhabiting the study area were included in the reference key excluding carnivore species (wolf, jackal, and lynx). This photographic key contained a total of 19 species. 22

37 3.3 SCAT ANALYSIS: Scat analysis using hair-mounting technique is commonly used to determine diet in a wide variety of carnivore species (Joslin, 1973; Floyd et al. 1978; Johnsingh, 1983; Ackerman et al., 1984; Leopold and Krausman 1986; Reynolds and Aebischer, 1991). Its procedure is described below: Segregation of scat samples The scats were placed in a warm, dry place so that they can dry as soon as possible. These samples were washed by using slightly warm water in order to dissolve the mucus. After washing sample was dried by placing it on the blotting paper and then all the remains such as hairs, bones, nails, feathers, and dentitions were segregated by using forceps. From undigested remains of scats hairs were used for making slides which was then used as a key for identification. Hair remains of prey were used for species identification following methodology described by Mukherjee et al. (1994). Food items were identified mainly from the macro-and micro-scopic structure of hairs. For this purpose, cuticular scale patterns of hairs and medullary structure were used to identify the prey (Joslin, 1973). This evidence was further substantiated from the remains of bones, claws, hooves, feathers and other undigested remains found in the scats. 23

38 3.3.2 Whole mount of hairs. A tuft of hairs cleaned in carbon tetrachloride was placed on a clean microscope slide. Individual hairs were separated from each other to avoid untidy jumble of hairs on the slide. Long hairs were cut into 2 or more pieces before they were placed on the glass slide. DPX (Distrene plasticizer xylene) was used as mounting medium for preparing permanent reference slides Scale replication of hairs Medium used for making semi-permanent cast of cuticular scales of mammal hair was 3 percent solution of glycerine jelly which is a gel when cool and fluid when warm. Glycerine 3 cc was mixed with 94 cc of warm water and 3 g of gelatin was added. After stirring 0.1 g of carbolic acid was added as preservator. Repeated heating of the gel or heating at too high temperature may prevent the medium from jelling. Heating the jar with the medium in a pan of water prevents over-heating. The medium was stored in refrigerator. Two to three drops of medium were placed on glass slide and spread with the help of other slide. Then clean hair was placed vertical to the long axis of the slide, having one end of the hair projecting over the edge of the slide so it can be easily grasped for removal. Now the slide was set for some time when the medium had become fairly solid. Using forceps the hair was removed from the solution when it had stick to 24

39 the solution so that the cast become appeared under the microscope which was almost exact duplicate of the scales of the hair Analysis of Reference material. Reference hairs were provided by Pakistan Museum of Natural History. These hairs were taken from different parts of body of animal i.e. from belly, neck and tail region. The hairs were selected randomly and then reference slides were made by following the procedure of whole mount and scale replication (see sections and ). These slides were then stored in refrigerator. A photographic reference key was developed from these hairs. 3.4 MICROPHOTOGRAPHY Photography Before being photographed the slides were thoroughly cleaned with tissue paper. The photographic film was exposed with the 35 mm camera fitted with automatic film advance on OLYMPUS BH-12 microscope attached with an automatic exposure system with built in micro-computer. Each slide was exposed to 100X and 40X objective while eyepiece of 3.3X magnification. A photographic reference key of of 19 species was developed for identification Magnification Calculation 25

40 Magnification of the Negative Following the Olympus photomicrographic system instruction manual, the magnification of the negative was calculated as follows: Magnification = Objective magnification photo eye piece As the photographic films were exposed under 100X objective and 40X objective and photo eye piece was 3.3X, so the magnification of the negative will be: Magnification of negative at 100 X objective = = 330 X. Magnification of negative at 40 X objective = = 132 X Magnification of the Positive For each hair slide with best cuticular scale patterns were developed at two different magnifications. Enlargement of the 36 mm negative at which positives were developed, was noted which was found to be 30 cm (300 mm). The magnification of the positive was calculated as: Length of the negative = 36 mm. Enlargement of the negative at which positive was developed = 300 mm. Magnification factor of the positive = 300/36 = Total magnification 26

41 Total magnification of the positive at100 X objective = magnification of the negative magnification factor of the positive = = 2739 X Total magnification of the positive at 40 X objective = magnification of the negative magnification factor of the positive = = 1095 X. 3.5 IDENTIFICATION Prey species were identified by comparing the cuticular scale pattern of hairs recovered in scats with photographic reference key. Scale patterns were often confusing as they varied considerably along the length of hair and overlapped between species but there is no doubt that the study of hair in fecal remains is most useful aid in the identification of mammalian prey consumed. The most important feature based in hair identification was the shape and arrangement of cuticular scales in the hair which were compared with reference key. Prey items in the scats were identified after a detailed analysis of hair including scale pattern with photographic key. The food items identified in the scats were pooled into 3 main categories. Large mammals including ungulates, meso mammals i.e. (marmot, hare, civit) and then small mammals including rodents mentioned in (Table 4.1). Assumed weight of domestic Sheep, Goat, Marmot, Pika and Yak were taken from Chandawaat and Rawat (1994) while weight of other species including ibex, 27

42 markhor and other small animals were taken from Roberts (1997) and Anwar (2006). The biomass consumption was estimated by using the linear relationship developed by Ackerman et al. (1984). This equation is as follows: Y = X Where: Y = is weight of prey consumed per scat, and X = is average body weight of the prey. Another aspect of identification in this study was based on the bones, nails and dentition recovered from scat remains. 3.6 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Chi Square ( ²) A chi-square test was carried out to test the null hypothesis that Snow leopard prefer similar prey species in both seasons summer and winter. 28

43 Chapter 4 RESULTS 4.1 Diet Composition In the present study 56 scats were collected from the study area, and 125 food items were identified. Twenty one percent of the scats consisted of single prey species while 79 % scats had remains of more than one prey species. Present study indicated that snow leopard had varied diet and domestic animals formed a significant part of it. A total of 17 species were identified; 5 of them were large mammals, 6 meso-mammals and remaining 6 were small mammals (Table 4.1). The occurrence of wild ungulates in diet was only 7.2% (2.4 ibex and 4.8 markhor). The livestock constitute a substantial part (26.4%) of the diet (Table 4.1). Among livestock domestic sheep dominated over domestic goat. Meso-mammals altogether comprised 33.4 % of the diet, with Palm civit (Paguma larvata) as a dominant (16.8%) species followed by golden marmot (8.8%). Similarly small mammals i.e. rodents (house mouse, wood mouse, Turkistan rat and mountain vole) comprised 28.8 % of the diet, and among this group Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius) dominated over other species (7.2%). While 8.8 % of the scats were remained unidentified in the diet of Snow leopard. 29

44 4.2 Biomass Consumption In terms of biomass consumed, livestock dominated by contributing 32.9 %. Wild ungulates constituted 17.5 %, meso-mammals 28.1 % and small mammals 13 % among meso-mammals Palm civit had the major contribution (12.9%), and Hamster was dominant contributor in small mammals (Table 4.2) 4.3 Seasonal Variation Frequency of occurrence of domestic livestock in the diet of snow leopard was higher in summer as compared to winter. The frequency of wild ungulates is also higher in summer as compared to winter. In wild prey species civet (Paguma larvata) was the most frequently occurring item in both seasons but its frequency was greater in summer as compared to winter while marmot was ranked second as it was 16.2 % in winter while 24 % in summer (Figure 4.1). Ibex was most frequently eaten in winter as compared to summer. While Markhor was eaten more frequently in summer as compared to winter. Similarly meso mammals were higher in winter and low in summer while rodents (house mouse, wood mouse, Turkistan rat, and mountain vole) vary significantly in both seasons ( ²=13.9, P < 0.05, d.f = 5) (Table 4.3). 30

45 4.4 Identification of Bones Bones were recovered from 44 % scats, and categorized as of rodents, lagomorphs and ungulates. In the identified bones rodents dominated 61% followed by lagomorphs 20 %. Whereas bones of ungulates were rare. While other groups include birds (Table 4.4). 31

46 Table 4.1 Composition (%) of the Snow leopard s diet in Chitral, Pakistan. (n=56) Prey Item Scientific Names Frequency % occurrence LARGE MAMMALS Domestic Sheep Ovis aries Domestic Goat Capra hircus domesticus Ibex Capra ibex sibirica Yak Bos grumniens Markhor Capra falconeri MESO-MAMMALS Marmot Marmota caudata Palm Civit Paguma larvata Commen Red Fox Vulpes vulpes Cape Hare Lepus capensis 5 4 Flying Squirril Eupetaurus cinereus Monkey Macaca mulatta SMALL MAMMALS Pika Ochotona roylei House mouse Mus musculus Wood mouse Apodemus rusiges Hamster Cricetulus migratorius Turkistan Rat Rattus turkistanicus Mountain Vole Alticola roylei Unidentified Total

47 1a 1b 1c 1d Plate 1: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Domestic Sheep 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 1d. Whole Mount of sample hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 33

48 2a 2b 2c 2d Plate 2: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Palm civit (Paguma larvata) 2a. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 2b. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 2c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 2d. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 34

49 3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 3f Plate 3: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Cape Hare (Lepus capensis) 3a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 3b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 3c. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 3d. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 3e. Scale Replication: sample hair at mid shaft region (40X) 3f. Scale Replication: sample hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 35

50 4a 4b 4c 4d Plate 4: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Turkistan rat (Rattus Turkistanicus) 4a. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 4b. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 4c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 4d. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 36

51 5a 5b 5c 5d Plate 5: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) 5a. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 5b. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 5c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 5d. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 37

52 6a 6b 6c 6d Plate 6: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Marmot (Marmota caudata) 6a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 6b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 6c. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 6d. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 38

53 7a 7b 7c 7d Plate 7: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Pika (Ochotona roylei) 7a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 7b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 7c. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 7d. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 39

54 8a 8b 8c 8d Plate 8: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius) 1a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Whole mount at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Whole mount at mid shaft region (100 X) 40

55 9 a 9 b 9 c 9 d Plate 9: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Flying squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus) 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Whole Mount of sample hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 41

56 10 a 10 b 10 c 10 d Plate 10: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Monkey (Macaca mulatta) 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 42

57 11 a 11b 11c Plate 11: Microphotographs of various hair structure of House mouse (Mus musculus) 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 1d. Whole Mount of sample hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 43

58 12 a 12b b 12 c Plate 12: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Wood house (Apodemus rusiges) 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Whole Mount of sample hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 44

59 Plate 13: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Mountain vole (Alticola roylei) 1a. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Whole mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (100 X) 45

60 14 a 14 b 14 c Plate 14: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Markhor (Capra falconeri) 1a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Whole Mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Scale Replication: negative impression of sample hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 46

61 15 a 15 b Plate 15: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Yak (Bos grumniens) 1a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Scale Replication: negative impression of sample hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Whole Mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 47

62 Plate 16: Microphotographs of various hair structure of Goat (Capra hircus domesticus) 1a. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (40 X) 1b. Scale Replication: negative impression at mid shaft region (100 X) 1c. Whole Mount of reference hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 1d. Scale Replication: negative impression of sample hair at mid shaft region (40 X) 48

63 Table 4.2 Calculation of Biomass consumption (kg) by snow leopard in Chitral Pakistan Percentage Prey species Assumed weight (A) Biomass per scat (B) No of scats (C) Biomass consumed (D) (%) Biomass consumption (E) Domestic Sheep Domestic Goat Ibex Yak Markhor Marmot Palm Civit Commen Red Fox Cape Hare Flying Squirril Monkey Pika Rodents A= assumed weight (kg) of the prey species B= estimated weight of prey consumed per scat B = A (Ackerman et al. 1984). C= number of scats in which prey species were identified D=biomass consumed (B C) E= percentage consumption (B C/ (B C) 100) 49

64 Table 4.3 Statistical analysis of the seasonal variation in the diet of Snow leopard. Summer winter Group % % ² P Value Livestock P < 0.05,d.f = 1* Wild ungulates P > 0.05, d.f = 1 Meso mammals P >0.05, d.f = 5 Small mammals P < 0.05, d.f = 5* Figure 4.1 Seasonal variations in the diet of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) 50

65 winter summer 60 Percent of Occurrence Sheep Goat Ibex Yak Markhor Marmot Civit Red fox Cape Hare Flying Squirril Monkey Pika H. mouse W.mouse Hamster T.rat vole Prey items Figure 4.1 Seasonal variations in the diet of Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) 51

66 Table 4.4 Percentage of occurrence of Bones in Snow leopard scats in Chitral, Pakistan. Group of species Frequency of occurrence % of occurrence Aves Lagomarpha 9 20 Rodentia Ungulata 6 13 Total 44 52

67 Chapter 5 DISCUSSION Due to extensive hunting practices the wild fauna of Pakistan has been influenced so that different species are at the edge of extinction. The decline in prey species has direct impact on feeding habits of snow leopards. As a result decline in wild prey, snow leopards predate on domestic livestock which lead to increased conflicts between snow leopard and local peoples. Reliable information on diet is required to assess magnitude of human-cat conflicts related to livestock predation. However, with the exception of one study undertaken in Glgit-Baltistan (Anwar, 2008), no information on food habits of snow leopard exists in Pakistan. The current study tried to explore diet selection of snow leopard in Chitral, and is expected to contribute to conflict resolution and effective management of this endangered cat. Snow leopard is known to consume a wide range of prey species; from wild ungulates (ibex, markhor, blue sheep, argali sheep, etc), domestic livestock (sheep, goat, and yak) to small animals i.e. (rodents, marmot, and civet, common red fox, etc) (Jackson et al. 2008). Hence, it is known as an opportunistic predator that consumes any prey available (Chandawat and Rawat, 1984; Mccarthy and Chapron, 2003). Current study in Chitral was compared with those from other parts of Asia like Manang region of Annupurana conservation area in Nepal (Oli, 1993) Yashu 53

68 and shula Nanshan regions of the Qinghai province in China (Schaller et al. 1988) the Hemis region of Ladakh (Chandawat and Rawat, 1994), and Spiti region in India (Bagchi and Mishra, 2006) shown in (Table 5.1). Wild ungulates are considered primary prey for snow leopard, and past studies report substantial contribution of wild ungulates in the diet of snow leopard. In 10 studies summarized in Table 5.1, average proportion of wild ungulates is 43.4% prey in a particular environment. In context of previous reports, proportion of wild ungulates (10.4%) observed in the present study is very low, and against the expectations because Chitral Gol National Park and surrounding areas host a large population of markhor (1000 individuals) (KP Wildlife department, 2009). A majority of Pakistan s protected areas where Snow leopard exists have livestock related conflicts (Hussain, 2003; Din, 2005). Livestock predation is a major challenge for management and conservation of this species and magnitude of this issue depends on availability of prey species in an environment. The contribution of livestock in snow leopard diet, reported in 10 past studies (Table 5.1) is 28% on average (Range: %). The livestock contribution of 26.4% observed in the present study indicates a significant dependence of the population on livestock and suggests that study area is expected to be high conflict area for snow leopards. This is also important to notice that livestock predation could be more then the percentage calculated from fecal analysis, because often snow leopard kill lot 54

69 more animals than they consume once entered in a pan. Jackson and Wangchuk (2004) reported that the most devastating livestock losses occurred after one or more leopards entered and killed all of the sheep and goats contained within the enclosure. They reported mass attacks of snow leopard in India in which as many as 100 sheep and goats are killed in a single incident but do not consume all the victims. Similar incident was reported in Chitral in which 14 goats were killed by snow leopard in a single attack (Records of Snow Leopard Trust) as shown in (Fig 5.1). Although in the current study occurrence of livestock was found in higher proportion of the scats still wild prey is also in significant proportion in the diet of Snow leopard in Chitral as compared to previous studies i.e in Manang Nepal (Oli et al. 1993) in Shule Nanshan China (Schaller et al. 1988), Hemis Ladakh India (Chandawat and Rawat, 1994) Pin velley India (Bagchi and Mishra, 2006) and Zailisky Alatan USSR (Zhiijakov, 1990). In the present study frequency of Rodents and meso-mammals constituted 62% in the diet of Snow leopard which shows relative importance of small animals in the diet of Snow leopard because smaller animals play an important role as an alternate prey in the diet of Snow leopard when its major prey is not readily available (Chandawat and Rawat, 1994). 55

70 Fig 5.1 Two photographs of depredation of goats by snow leopard in Chitral (Photo credit: Snow Leopard Trust) Seasonal variation exists in the diet of Snow leopard. In wild prey species the proportion was higher in winter as compared to summer. This might be due to increased vulnerability of ungulates in winter. 56