CONSTRUCTION OF SKILL TESTS AND COMPUTATION OF NORMS IN FIELD HOCKEY

Transcription

1 CONSTRUCTION OF SKILL TESTS AND COMPUTATION OF NORMS IN FIELD HOCKEY A thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Submitted by M. SURESH KUMAR Under the Guidance of Dr. R. KALIDASAN Department of Physical Education BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY Tiruchirappalli Tamilnadu, India December 2010

2 ii Dr. R. KALIDASAN B.Sc., M.P.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D., PGDFM., PGDYE., PGDSM., NIS Dip. in Sports Coaching (Cricket) Assistant Professor and Head i/c Department of Physical Education Bharathidasan University Tiruchirappalli , India CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled Construction of Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey submitted by M. SURESH KUMAR for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, is a bonafide record of research work carried out under my guidance and supervision. It is further certified that to the best of my knowledge that this thesis does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation or for the award of any other degree or diploma. Place: Tiruchirappalli Date: Research guide

3 iii DECLARATION I do here by declare that the thesis entitled Construction of Skill Tests and Computation of Norms in Field Hockey submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, is the original work carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. R. KALIDASAN, Assistant Professor and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. I further declare that this work has not been submitted earlier in full or in parts to any university for the award of any other degree or diploma. Place: Tiruchirappalli Date: (M. SURESH KUMAR)

4 Dedicated to my dad Madhavan, mom Sakunthala, my family well wisher Mr. Rajagopal, my Teachers, wife Elamathi & My dear Son Elayaraghavan iv

5 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gratefully acknowledge and sincerely appreciate my guide Dr. R. Kalidasan, Assistant Professor and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for his scholarly guidance, constant encouragement, continuous support and patience throughout the completion of this work. Without his valuable guidance this work would not be a successful one. I am eternally grateful to Dr. K. Chandrasekaran, Former Head, Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for his help rendered in the completion of this study. I extend my feelings of gratitude to my fellow scholars Mr. A. Needhiraja and Mr. J. Viswanathan for their kind help at various stages of this study and special appreciation to Mr. K. Ivin Jabakumar for his support throughout my data collection. I extend my deep heart felt thanks to Dr. B. S. Sha-in-Sha, Dr.R. Kasiviswanathan, Dr.E. Simson Jesudoss, Mr. P. B. Muralikrishnan, Dr. V. Vallimurugan, Mr. M. Ganesh Kumar, without their technical assistance, this work would certainly not have been possible. Special thanks to Mr. Senthil, Mr. Siva, Mr. K. Pradeep, Mr. Dhinesh, Mr. Felix, Mr. Anthony, Mr. Julian Vasanth, Mr. Devashish, Mr. Ramesh, Mr. Moustaq Kutubbudin, Mr. Karthi,

6 vi Mr. P. Veeramani, Mr. V. Saminathan, Mr. P. Babu who has helped me in data collection. I acknowledge with all humility and deep gratitude to Dr. L. C. John, Mrs. John and Dr. A. S. Nageswaran for their help in statistics and encouragement throughout my doctoral program. I thank Dr. Jaihind Jothikaran, for his careful effort and fine tuning of language. I would like to give my sincere thanks to Mr. A. S. Sivakumar for his encouragement and financial support. I extend my gratitude and sincere thanks to scholars from other Departments of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli especially Dr. S. Ramakrishnan, Dr. K. Sundaravel for their constant encouragement throughout my doctoral programme. I extend my feelings of gratitude to Mr. P. Prabakaran, Mr. T. K. Rajasekaran, Mr. M. Arumugam and Mr. K. Soundarrajan, Mr. Rengarajan staff members, Department of Physical Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. I express my sincere thanks to who actively involved as the subjects for this study. Finally, I wish to thank to everybody who participated directly or indirectly in the process of the completion of this work. M.Suresh Kumar

7 vii VITAE Personal Details Name :M. Suresh Kumar Father s Name :S. Madhavan Mother s Name :M. Sakunthala Age and Date of Birth :27 Years, Nationality :Indian Religion :Hindu Category :OBC Marital Status :Married Address: For Communication Research Scholar Department. of Physical Education Bharathidasan University Tiruchirappalli , Tamilnadu Surhoc1139@yahoo.co.in Mobile: Permanent 5/65 P.G Nagar Jagir Ammapalayam (Po) Salem , Tamilnadu Educational Qualifications (10 th Std. onwards): Examination Board Month & Year of Passing SSLC State March 1999 HSC State March 2001 Marks Obtained Percentage Class % I % I

8 viii Educational Qualifications (UG Degree onwards): Degree Subject University/Institute Percentage Year of passing BPE Physical University of Kerala 65.45% 2004 Education MPE Physical University of Kerala 68.15% 2006 Education M.Phil. Physical Education Annamalai University 64.80% 2008 NIS, Dip. Hockey SAI, NSSC, 66.00% 2007 In Sports Bangalore Coaching CCY Yoga Kaivalyadhama, 70.71% 2004 Lonavla PGDSBSA Statistics Annamalai University 63.50% 2008 Teaching Experience: University RKMVU, FGAPEdY, SRKV Post Periyanaicken Palayam, Coimbatore Designation Lecturer Duration From To Length of Service One Year Academic Achievements: o Awarded UGC-JRF (Dec. 2006) o Qualified UGC-NET (Dec.2006) o Qualified SET (March. 2006) Sports Achievements: Represented University of Kerala Hockey Team which participated in the South Inter-University Competition during the year , and Member of the Trivandrum Hockey team which bagged Second place in the Kerala Senior State Hockey Championship during

9 ix Member of the LNCPE College team which bagged the gold medal in the University of Kerala Inter-Collegiate Hockey Tournament during Member of the LNCPE College team which bagged the gold medal in VII & VIII all Kerala College games conducted by Kerala Sports Council during and Other Qualifications: Participated in UGC Sponsored Interaction Programme for Ph.D. Scholars Conducted by Academic Staff College, Pondicherry University, Puducherry during 17 and Attended the Hockey Umpiring course conducted by Karnataka State Hockey Association and passed the umpiring examination during Passed the official examination in Kho-Kho organised by State Kho-Kho Association held at Maruthi college of Physical Education, Coimbatore. Presented 20 research papers/articles in the National and International Conferences/Seminars. Publications: 1. Book: S.No Title Authors Publishers 1 ABCs of Ball Badminton Dr.R.Kalidasan, M.Suresh Kumar (ISBN No: ) Vinsi Agencies, #9/4,Iswarya Complex, College Road, Karaikudi- 02, Tamilnadu

10 x 2. Research articles published in Journals: 2 Influence of Sport Vision Training for Enhancing Visual Skills of Athletes 3 E-Resources in Physical Education 4 Comparison of Sports Achievement Motivation level among different Topography of Ball Badminton players 5 Sportspersonship among Field Hockey Players 7557) Indian Journal of Physical Education Sports Medicine & Exercise Science S.No Title Name of the Journal 1 Analysis of Selected Journal of Anthropometric Sports and Characteristics and Iso- Sports Inertial Strength with Hitting Sciences, Oct. Speed of Hockey Players 2009, (ISSN No: Vyayam- Vidnyan Journal of Physical Education Sports Sciences Journal of Sports and Sports Sciences, Oct. 2009, (ISSN No: ) Publishers SAI, NSNIS, Patiala LNIPE, Gwalior H.V.P.Mandal, Amravati MCPE, Coimbatore SAI, NSNIS, Patiala

11 xi List of Contents Certificate by the Supervisor - ii Declaration by the Scholar - iii Dedication -iv Acknowledgements - v Vitae - vii List of Contents - xi List of Tables - xiii List of Illustrations - xv List of Figures - xvi Abstract - xvii Chapter I Introduction 1-17 Rationale of the Study Statement of the Problem Significance of the study Delimitations Limitations Operational Definitions of the Terms Chapter II Review of Related Literature Field Hockey Skill tests Test Batteries in Other games Summary Chapter III Methodology Selection of Subjects

12 xii Skills in Field Hockey Selection of Variables Justification of taking up the Variables Pilot Study Research Flow Chart Establishing Validity, Reliability and Objectivity Reliability of Instruments Tester Competency Orientation of the Subjects Administration of the Test Items Design and Statistical Techniques Used Chapter IV Analysis of Data and Results of the Study Findings Factor Analysis of all the Skill Test Items Development of Final Test battery Development of Norms Development of Grading Scale Discussion on Findings Chapter V Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Summary Conclusions Recommendations for implication Recommendations for further Study Bibliography Appendix

13 xiii List of Tables Table Title Page No I Reliability Co-Efficient of Test-Retest Scores for all the Selected Skill Test Items 66 II Objectivity Co-Efficient Scores for all the Selected Skill Test Items 67 III Selection of Skill Tests 69 IV Testing Schedule & Collection of Data 70 V Descriptive Analysis of all the Skill Tests Items 89 VI Correlation Co-Efficient Matrix of the Skill Test Items 91 VII Principal Component Analysis (Un rotated Factor loading) 93 VIII Rotated Factor Loading (Varimax solution) 94 IX Factor 1 (one) of Rotated Factor Loadings (Varimax Solution) 96 X XI Factor 2 (tw0) of Rotated Factor Loadings (Varimax Solution) Field Hockey Skill Test Battery 97 99

14 xiv XII Descriptive Analysis of Raw Scores on all the Skill Test Items 100 XIII Percentile Norms for all the Skill Test Items 101 XIV 6 - Sigma Scale for Playing Ability Scores 101 XV Grading Scale for the Interpretation of Playing Ability 102

15 xv Figure List of Illustrations Title Page No I Zig Zag Dribbling 71 II Speed Dribbling 73 III Straight Drive Hit 74 IV Slap Hit 76 V Multi Target Push 78 VI Straight Flick 80 VII Scoop for Distance 81 VIII Shooting from 16 Yards 83 IX Shooting From Three Different Spots 85

16 xvi List of Figures Figure Title Page No I Percentage Variance of Rotated Factor Loadings 95 II Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 1 97 III Comparison of Loading Values for Factor 2. 98

17 xvii Abstract The purpose of this study was to construct a new skill test battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey players. Initially 23 test items were designed on 6 fundamental skills. A pilot study was conducted on 52 male Field Hockey players from Chennai region age ranged from 17 to 20 years. They were regular practitioners in the astro turf surfaces. After extensive critical analysis 9 skill tests were finalized. Validity, reliability and objectivity were established on all selected test items. To arrive the final test battery four hundred and fifty four male college level Field Hockey players excluding goal keepers were randomly selected from various colleges of Tamilnadu state, India and their age ranged between 17 and 20 years with the mean age of 18.8, ± 1.9 years. After administrating the 9 skill test items to the above said subjects it was found that there was an inter-relationship between the performances of selected test items. The factor analysis yielded two factors which were named as stick work ability and accuracy in ball playing ability. The final test battery included the following skill tests namely speed dribbling, shooting from 16 yards, straight flick, slap hit, multi target push and straight drive hit. Finally norms were developed using percentiles and 6-sigma scale.

18 Chapter I Introduction

19 CHAPTER I Introduction In sports and games the performance is inevitable. Nowadays, the nature of sports and games has gone through tremendous radical changes in international arena. Identification of effective players is becoming a crucial, because day by day the games have become highly competitive. In sports and games, performance of players is judged by competition results. Apart from competition, the assessment of a player in any sports discipline can be done either by subjective or objective means. The test, measurement and evaluation concept was in existence in physical education for past several years. Many extensive research works have been done in these areas. Sport Skill Test The development of sports skill has had a long and productive history. Among the earliest were the Athletic Badge Test presented in 1913 by the Playground and Recreation Association of the USA. These tests were for the sports of Basketball, Tennis and Volleyball. Elizabeth Beoll proposed other early skills tests in 1924 for Basketball by Brace and in 1925 for Tennis (Clarke and Clarke, 1987). The research council of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER) published several sport skill tests in the late 1960s that were developed from the combined efforts of researchers, city directors of physical education and public

20 Introduction 2 school teachers. The measurement and evaluation council of the AAHPERD formed a task force in 1979 to revise and expand the AAHPERD sports skill test series. The Basketball and Softball skills tests were revises and a Tennis test was added to the series (Baumgartner, et al. 2003). A universal goal of physical education programmme is to produce permanent measurable changes in student psychomotor behavior, in skills ranging from touch Football to modern dance, from Volleyball to Scuba diving. For the achievement of psychomotor objectives to be evaluated, the measurement procedures-tests, rating scales or other instruments must parallel the instructional objectives. A skill is an ability, usually learned and acquired through training, to perform actions which achieve a desired outcome. During 1930, skill testing in the fundamental skills in different games and sports were devised. Brace presented one of the earliest skill tests on Basketball. All those tests were followed the general procedure was to determine statistically a few simple test items to measure the total activity of that sports and games. Skill tests were developed to measure the basic skills used in a specific sport (AAHPERD, 1968). The skill test items are collectively called a test battery. Meanwhile the nature of the battery of tests in measuring the fundamentals skills should be a field based one rather than the lab based. Since the field based test items highlight the real game situations, assessing the player in the real game situation is encouraged.

21 Introduction 3 Skill tests require an environment similar to the game environment and standardized procedures for administration. The validity of skill tests is judged to some extent on the consistency between testing and performing environments. This does not mean you must recreate exactly the playing environment; it does mean that the movements and the activity must correspond to those of the actual sport. The virtue of skill tests is a subject of ongoing debate. Many skill tests offer an objective, reliable and valid method for evaluating motor skill objectives, while others do not. It is advised not to use a skill test that does not meet evaluation needs or the important criteria of reliability, validity and feasibility for mass testing. Also, be sure to adopt tests that were developed on students of the same gender, age and experience level as your students. One can also modify an existing test to meet the needs. According to James.R.Morrow (2005) the objective skill test can be classified as four primary types, they are; Accuracy-Based Tests Accuracy-based skills test usually involve the skill of serving an object, such as a Volleyball, Tennis ball, or Badminton shuttle cock. They may also involve some other test of accuracy: throwing in Football or Baseball, free throws or other shots in Basketball, or kicking goals in Soccer. The primary measurement issue associated with accuracy tests is

22 Introduction 4 the development of a scoring system that will provide reliable yet valid results. Repetitive-Performance Tests Repetitive-performance tests are tests that involve continuous performance of an activity (e.g., volleying) for a specified period of time. They are commonly called wall volleys or self-volleys and can be used to measure the strokes of racket sports, such as the forehand or backhand stroke in Tennis and volleying and passing in Volleyball. Repetitive-performance tests usually have a high degree of reliability, but unless they are constructed carefully they may not approximate the same type of action that is used in the game, in which case validity is reduced. Total Body Movement Tests Total body movement tests are often called speed tests, because they assess the speed at which a performer completes a task that involves movement of the whole body in a restricted area. A dribbling test in Basketball or Soccer measures this skill. Base running tests in Baseball and Softball are also tests of this type. These tests usually have a high degree of reliability because a large amount of interindividual variability is associated with timed performances. These tests can be administered quickly, but they have two inherent problems. First the test must approximate the game performance, and in

23 Introduction 5 many cases flat-out speed of movement is not always required in the game. Distance or Power Tests The final classification for objective skill test is distance or power performance tests, which assess one s ability to project an object for maximum displacement or force. The Badminton drive test for distance and the Racquetball power serve test are examples of this type (Strand & Wilson, 1993), as are distance throws in Softball and Baseball and punt, pass, and kick competitions. One problem with these tests is ensuring that they are performed in a gamelike manner. Another question with tests of distance is whether to take accuracy in account. For example, in the punt, pass, and kick contest, the distance off the line of projection is subtracted from the distance of projection. Because of this, a performer might hold back from using maximum force for fear of losing accuracy. In contrast, in track events such as the discus and shot put, these corrections are not made as long as the object is projected within a given area. Consequently, before using a test it is important to consider whether the test requires or accounts for any correction for accuracy. Need of a Skill Test At present the physical education teacher and coaches in India have the resources sufficiently to measure the physical, motor and performance related components, whereas the tests of

24 Introduction 6 measuring the fundamental skills in sports and games are very limited. Further the available tests are also not home based. So the results and conclusions derived from these tests can have a chance to mislead due to some extraneous factors. However the professionals in the field of physical education and sports are forced to use foreign system because of limited options. In such a situation the resources on tests and measurements to measure the fundamental skills have to be enhanced. For that, physical educators and coaches should have a sound knowledge on testing and measuring the performance related components (physical, physiological, anatomical and psychological). Such a sound knowledge gained from the test and measurement, help them study the state and progress of individual performance in the fundamental skills and identify the right type of athletes because the aforesaid components are functioning as determinants in individual performance. The field of Indian sports science has very limited scientifically structured tests and measurements to assess the individual performance. The field of test and measurement to Indian applications has been chosen as an area with the intention of imparting the real game situations admissible to Indian conditions. Steps in Test Construction Tests are very important in the area of physical education. Tests are widely used to diagnose the needs and weakness of the students, to evaluate the effectiveness of a programme, to grade

25 Introduction 7 and classify the students with reference to their performance levels, to motivate the students towards a particular activity or skill by means of a test at the end of the programme as an instructional device, as a prediction and as tool of research. In test construction the test to be valid should have some basic considerations. The basic considerations would adhere to the standards of significance of test such as validity, reliability, objectivity and norms. According to Johnson and Nelson (1998) the nature of the game should be analysed in steps one in order to determine the skills that are to be measured. Mere listing of components that are involved in activity is insufficient. It is to determine the relative importance of a component because some of the traits involved in the skills, which are the byproducts of a factor. In step two, selections of test items that measure the desired qualities are included. It is the most crucial step in the entire test construction. The selection of test items must be chosen with regard to their importance as well as their propensity to be measured accurately. Selection of the test items may be either from the established tests through the utilization of jury of experts or may be determined arbitrarily by analyzing the game situation. If the test pertains to a game, the test item should confirm as much as possible to the actual game. Test item is only a sample of total performance. In order to avoid the misleading results, the testing situations should be easy and feasible one.

26 Introduction 8 Step three includes the exact procedures for administering and scoring of the test. In accomplishing this, the researcher must resort to certain amount of trial and error. The best-laid plans on paper may be totally inaccessible in practice. Because the applications of such plans in the real game situation may not be desirable due to many external factors and the test needs to be modified. The clarity and simplicity of directions have a direct bearing on the reliability and objectivity of the test. The next step is, determining the reliability of the test items. It can be obtained for each test by giving the test twice to the same group of subjects. In this case care should be taken to ensure consistency among the subjects. Subjects selected for tests should be the course representative of population for who, the test is intended. The next step is objectivity in that two competent testers administering the test item to the same individuals can accomplish it. It is directly related to the skill and integrity of the testers as well as to the clarity and simplicity of the instructions and procedures of the test. The next step is validity in that the composite score of all the test items in the battery may be used for validating the test items. Otherwise the judges rating on the overall performance of the game may be considered as a criterion to establish the validity. Next step is to revise the test in the light of the findings of the steps already described and finally the written instructions for administering and scoring the test.

27 Introduction 9 The last step is the construction the norms. For that a large number of subjects who are representative of the population for whom the test was intended should be given and the test and their test scores are recorded. The score then is converted to percentile or T-Score. Norm for each item should be prepared usually the norms for the composite total score is also desirable. Field Hockey Field Hockey is a popular sport played in more than 132 countries. Its official name by which it is usually known is Hockey. However, some countries, and some encyclopedic references, distinguish it from other sports with the same name as Field Hockey. The origin of the word Hockey was obscure. Hockie was forbidden in the Statutes of Galway in The word may derive from comocke and the Anglo-Saxon word for 'Hook', Hok; alternatively, it may come from the French word for a shepherd's crook, Hocquet. Hockey-like games where teams attempt to place a ball into their opponent's goal using sticks have been found throughout history and the world. Historical records show that game was played in various antique civilizations, although it is not possible to know exactly when and where the game began. 4,000 year old drawings found in the Beni Hasan tombs, in the Nile Valley, Egypt depicted men playing the sport. Other traces show that the Persians, the Romans (a version called paganica),

28 Introduction 10 the Ethiopians, as well as the Aztecs were playing their own variation of the game. The modern game was developed on the other side of London by Middlesex Cricket clubs, especially Teddington. In the late 19th century, largely due to the British Army, the game spread throughout the British Empire, leading to the first international competition between Ireland and wales in The International Rules Board was founded in 1895, and Hockey first appeared at the Olympic Games as a men's competition at 1908 Olympic Games in London, with only three teams: England, Ireland and Scotland. Men's Hockey became a permanent fixture at the Olympics at the 1928 Olympic Games, at Amsterdam. The first step towards an international structuring occurred in 1909, when England and Belgium agreed to recognize each other for international competitions, soon joined in the French federation. Hockey took its most important step forward in 1924 when the International Hockey Federation, the world governing body for the sport, was founded in Paris under the initiative of Frenchman, Paul Leautey. Mr. Leautey, The International Hockey Federation has continued to grow and spread around five continents. The women's Hockey developed quickly in many countries and in 1927, the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) was formed. After celebrating their

29 Introduction 11 respective Golden Jubilees - the FIH in 1974 and the IFWHA in the two organisations came together in 1982 to form the FIH. Today, the International Hockey Federation (FIH) consists of five Continental associations - Europe and Oceania have since joined - and 127 member associations. In many ways, the FIH serves as the 'guardian' of the sport. It works in co-operation with both the national and continental organisations to ensure consistency and unity in Hockey around the world. The FIH not only regulates the sport, but is also responsible for its development and promotion so as to guarantee a secure future for Hockey. Hockey in India The game had been taken to India by British servicemen, and the first clubs formed there in Calcutta in The Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament had commenced within ten years. Entering the Olympic Games in 1928, India won all five of its games without conceding a goal, and went on to win in 1932 until 1956, and then in 1964 and The Indian Hockey Federation was formed in the year 1925 in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh during the Scindia Gold Cup tournament. But it was not active after that. After the end of the World War I, the commander of the British Armed forces in India, Field Marshall Birdwood who was in charge of organizing the retreat of the combined Australian and New Zealand armies

30 Introduction 12 after the Gallipoli tragedy proposed a Hockey tour to New Zealand in 1926 as a friendship tour. The tour gave a chance for revival of the Federations and thus began the efforts of consolidating the Indian Hockey Federation as the Indian Army's Hockey team toured New Zealand. The Indian Hockey Federation gained global affiliation in 1927 and joined the International Hockey Federation. A national championship between provinces was organized in 1928 at Calcutta to select the Indian team for the Amsterdam Olympics. In three decades, India has not seen any success at the highest level of its national game due to several reasons. Restructuring the administrative system, creating infrastructure and world class facilities coaching / training programme, several scheme uniform selection policy. The national championship and the Premier Hockey League should be revived, along with junior competitions, to widen the base for a talent hunt. The administration should be restructured to meet the demands of the game and to offer financial security to the players without compromising discipline. Rationale of the Study Recent developments in Field Hockey, such as the playing surface, new stick material, and interchange of rule, have increased the number of technical demands made on Field Hockey players at all levels. Due to the modern demands of the game, there is a need of highly reliable and valid test for Field

31 Introduction 13 Hockey. The skill test constructed by various experts in the field of Hockey was outdated and it measures the combinations of skill where, the player s fundamental skills have to measure with a simple reliable one. Day by day the nature of the game changes its structure. Coaches, trainers and players are continually searching for effective methods of identifying and developing those characteristics in a player that may enhance performance. Hence, the research scholar has decided to design a test battery that measures the basic qualities of a player, which is very essential in the game situation. This test battery may help the coaches to classify the students into homogenous group, find out their talents and to the players to know about themselves. Most valid and reliable tests, however, measure one or two isolated skills without regard to how they are used in the actual game situation. Statement of the Problem The objective of the study was to construct a new skill test battery and to develop standard norms for Field Hockey players. Significance of the Study The study would be significant in the following aspects. 1. The newly developed skill test battery would help the physical educators and coaches to evaluate their players more accurately, since large number of test items were included in this test battery, which are field based one.

32 Introduction The constructed test battery would help the coaches and physical educators to have periodical monitoring on the performance of players during the training and coaching period. 3. The norms developed in this study would help the players, physical educators and coaches to assess the skill level and make a comparison between other groups. 4. This study would yield norm to be used for the evaluation, classification and selection of Field Hockey players for different levels of competition. 5. The study would provide coaches with realistic and objective information about the standard of the players in order to improve the specificity of training to prepare individuals for optimal performance. 6. The study would serve as a motivational force to the Field Hockey players to improve upon their skills. 7. The study would helpful in locating potential Field Hockey players. Delimitations The present study was delimited in the following aspects 1. The present study was confined to male Field Hockey players except goal keepers. 2. The range of the age of the players used as subjects in the present study was between 17 and 20 years.

33 Introduction The data were collected during the competitive period. 4. The study was delimited to 454 Field Hockey players studying in various colleges of Tamilnadu state, India. 5. Further, the study was delimited to selected test items of the following fundamental skills of Field Hockey: Dribbling Hit Push Flick Scoop Goal Shooting Limitations 1. The impact of training schedules, previous experiences, motivational factors and various physical activities on the subject s playing ability were not taken into account. 2. Variations in performance due to diet, climatic conditions, ground conditions and other environmental factors that might affect the study, were not taken into consideration. 3. Since the human elements are involved in the test administration even slight error in measurement and timings which might affect the results were also considered as limitations of the study. 4. The fatigue factors of the players and the carry-over knowledge of the skills which might affect the performance in the tests were considered as limitations of the study.

34 Introduction The test location, ball speed, players playing position and players experience in playing astro turf which might affect the study were also considered as limitations of the study. Operational Definitions of the Terms Test A test is an instrument or tool used to make the particular measurement. (Morrow, 2005) Measurement Measurement is an aid to the evaluation process in that various tools and techniques are used in collection of data. (Johnson and Nelson, 1988) Evaluation Evaluation is the statement of quality, value, or worthiness about what has been assessed. (Morrow, 2005) Reliability Reliability refers to the degree to which a test consistently measures a given factor. (Miller, 2002) Validity Validity refers to the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure. (Miller, 2002)

35 Introduction 17 Objectivity Objectivity is similar in nature to reliability, when two or more persons can administer the same test to the same group and obtain approximately the same results. (Miller, 2002) Norms Norms are values considered to be representative or a specified population. They provide information for the individual in the programme and counsels to enable them interpret any individual s score in relation to the scores made by other individual s in the same population. Norms are usually based on age, grade, height, weight, sex or the various combinations of these characteristics. (Johnson and Nelson, 1988) Factor Analysis A statistical procedure that is used to reduce a large number of variables to a much smaller representative set of variables called factors. The object of factor analysis is to achieve parsimony and often to discover the essential variables that underline and summarize the information in a large set of variables. (Field, 2005)

36 Chapter II Review of Related Literature

37 CHAPTER II Review of Related Literature A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area. It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, & what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other findings. The present reviews are based upon the available literature in respect to the study under investigation and therefore confined to the studies to which the investigator has accessed. All the relevant literature thus obtained by the researcher has been presented in this chapter to furnish necessary background material to evaluate the significance of the study. The research scholar has made every possible effort to go thorough the literatures related to the problem in the game of Field Hockey wherever available. The research scholar first visited Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education, Trivandrum, followed by Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education, Gwalior and Netaji Subhas Southern Centre, Sports Authority of India, Bangalore which were the pioneer institution in the development

38 Review of Related Literature 19 of physical education and sports. The scholar has gleaned through almost every source like research quarterly, journals of various kinds, periodicals, encyclopedias, relevant book and e- resources on Field Hockey and other games to pick up related material. While going through the various sources of literature, it has been observed that very little work has been done on specific skill tests related to the game of Field Hockey especially on modern surfaces. However, the scholar has also gone through the literatures of allied studies that are related to other games and sports to collect the necessary information for making a proper shape of the study. Field Hockey Skill Tests Schmitals and French (1940) constructed a three item test of achievement in Field Hockey skill for college women. The item includes ball control, goal shooting, fielding & drive, with a criterion of expert judgement the item validity ranged from 0.44 to 0.48 with a multiple correlation of Spearman brown formula estimates the split half reliability for the items ranged from 0.90 to The best combination of two skill factors was found to be goal shooting left and fielding & drive. Friedel (1956) proposed a single item Field Hockey test for high school girls, named as pass receiving, fielding and driving while moving. There are ten trials from each side, right and left. Each trial is timed with stopwatch. The reliability was assessed

39 Review of Related Literature 20 by the split-half method, the scores were correlated by using Spearman Brown formula and reliability coefficients were 0.90 for the left side and 0.77 for the right side. For validation, the test scores were correlated with Schmithals French ball control test and found to be valid with a value of Singh (1959) prepared a two-item test, which included dribbling and hitting, and dribbling and goal shooting. The subjects for the study were 107 students of two Arts Colleges of Punjab. He validated the tests against the subjective rating of the two experts, who were national umpires in Hockey. The dribbling and hitting test gave a validity of 0.78 and the validity of dribbling and goal shooting test was He correlated the two tests in order to determine if they measured different aspects and the result was He also prepared t-scores for college men. Strait (1961) constructed and evaluated a Field Hockey skill test. The test required the use of a backboard and included the skills of fielding, dodging, dribbling and driving. The test had a reliability coefficient of 0.87 for Smith College students and of 0.86 for members of the Hampshire Field Hockey Association. Using the rating of three judges as a criterion of the validity for the Smith College students was 0.61 and for the members of Hampshire Field Hockey Association was The test was equally suitable for evaluation of attack and defense position players.

40 Review of Related Literature 21 Illner (1969) constructed a skill test for the drive in Field Hockey. Beginning high school players, physical education major and association players were tested on their ability to drive the ball to the left and to the right after five weeks of instruction and practices. Speed and accuracy were therefore included and then were combined into a single score by means of additive and multiplicative technique. The test was found to be objective r=0.97, reliable r=0.72 and valid measures of an individual ability to execute the drive. Henry (1970) test was proven on 31 college and high school Hockey players ranging in experience from 2 weeks to 6 years. Friedel test was considered as most suited for modification among the tests namely 1-item tests by Friedel, Strait and Stewart. Two judges rated the players on general abilities such as footwork, stickwork and body control while they were performing 20 trials of the modified test and 6 trails of Strait s test. The aggrement between the judges was reported with a coefficient of This study was conducted in the offseason for Hockey, and this is one explanation Henry makes for the borderline reliability coefficients. The speed scores proved to be as good an indicator of Hockey skill as speed and accuracy scores combined. Henry set several criteria for the modified test to meet: it should be a 1-item test, have a minimum of equipment, have a game-like situation and be economic of time in terms of test administration. It should also encourage good form, consider both speed and accuracy and discriminate among

41 Review of Related Literature 22 players of near equal ability. Enough of these criteria were met to consider this test item worthy of use. Dangwal (1981) measured specific element constituting the playing ability of state level Hockey players. The subjects were Netaji Subash National Institute of Sports regular trainees and three experts working as coaches were appointed as experts for ranking the players. The tests were: 1. Speed of the ball 2. Stopping and shooting 3. Interception and clearance 4. Receiving and passing 5. Tapping with only left hand or Tapping through wooden blocks 6. Dribbling through wooden blocks 7. Speed with optimum ball control 8. Dodging towards right and left 9. Running with ball while changing direction 10. Specific speed endurance 11. Test of relative performance Reliability: Product Moment correlations between two sets of scores through test retest method. Validity: Spearman s Rank Correlation Co-efficient between rank of the subjects and corresponding rank of the subject according to the scores. The test enabled ranking the subjects for their attacking and defending ability separately. The test for dodging and the test for specific endurance require further investigations.

42 Review of Related Literature 23 Chapman (1982) developed a test that isolates the manipulative ability of finite ball control in Field Hockey from other movement skills that may contribute more to overall gameplay efficiency. The test was administered to 23 inter-collegiate field Hockey players and the logical validity and, with a criterion measure of ratings of stickwork skills, concurrent validity coefficients of 0.63 and 0.64 and the reliability was Nirmala (1985) constructed an objective skill test in Hockey for higher secondary school girls. Three test items namely shooting and accuracy, hitting and stopping accuracy and passing accuracy were tested on forty four girl students of senior secondary school, age ranged between 13 and 17 years. The scientific authenticity of the test was established by computing reliability by administering the test on two different occasions by the investigator herself and the correlation coefficients for shooting accuracy, hitting and stopping accuracy and passing accuracy were 0.68, 0.95 and 0.86 respectively. The validity was obtained by comparing the test result with the experts opinion while playing situation and was found 0.92 of all three test items. Dureha (1985) constructed an objective skill test in Hockey for secondary school boys. 60 boys were tested on three test items namely angular hitting and stopping for one minute, pass receiving, dribbling & hitting and dribbling & goal shooting. The reliabilities of all three test items were 0.92, 0.94 and 0.91 respectively. The objectivity was established by administering

43 Review of Related Literature 24 the tests in the same manner with the help of an expert and found 0.95, 0.96 and 0.91 respectively. The validity was found by comparing the test results with the experts opinion in playing situation and was found 0.55, and respectively. Kirubakaran (1986) constructed a battery of objective skill test in Hockey for University of Madras students. 32 men college students belonging to the age group of 19 to 25 years were selected and they had enough experience in the game as players representing the college or the university. The researcher conducted the following tests namely speed, dribble test, ball carrying, dodging, passing ability test and target hitting test. The scientific authenticity of the battery of skill tests was established by computing the correlation co-efficient. The battery of skill tests constructed by the investigator measures the offensive Hockey playing ability of the University of Madras students. It was found that the battery of objective skill tests satisfied the criterion of scientific authenticity in reliability, objectivity, validity and administrative feasibility. Further they had a significant correlation between the total scores of the test battery and the Hockey playing ability assessed by the experts. Sangral (1986) objectives were (i) to identify major fundamental skills and skill combinations in Hockey (ii) to construct and standardize a battery of skill tests purely on objective lines, (iii) to prepare norms in each skill for players at different levels of inter-college, inter-university, combined university, state and national levels, and (iv) to present a

44 Review of Related Literature 25 standardised procedure for grading Hockey players. The sample for test construction consisted of 63 male experienced Hockey players. The sample included 17 inter college players, 15 interuniversity players, nine combined university players, 19 state level players, and three national level players. However, for working out norms, the sample consisted of 500 male Hockey players who participated at different levels in the year The skills and skill combinations selected for playing Hockey were 25 yard goal shooting, dribble and push, scoop for accuracy, dribble and hit, and self hitting and stopping. The test was constructed on the basis of items linked with these five skills. The reliability of the test was established against each item with the test-retest method. The reliability coefficient varied from 0.78 to The validity for each of the test items was established against the rating by judges about playing ability. The validity coefficient varied from 0.40 for dribble to 0.77 for self hit and stop. On factor analysis of test scores, self hit and stop, scoop for accuracy, and dribble and push came out as independent factors. The multiple regression equation showed that the factors self hit and stop, scoop for accuracy, and dribble and push, measured total Hockey playing ability sufficiently. So the test battery was formed of three tests, namely dribble and push, scoop for accuracy, self hit, and stop. After factor analysis the test battery had test-retest reliability coefficient 0.91, and validity against judgement by judges was The norms were established for intercollege, inter-university, combined university, state, and national level players separately. The

45 Review of Related Literature 26 study showed the following: The mean difference in performance in dribble and push amongst three groups intercollege, interuniversity and state level players, was not significant but the mean differences were significant in case of intercollege, interuniversity and national level players. In case of scoop for accuracy, the national level group was significantly better in performance in comparison to intercollege, interuniversity, combined university and state level groups. The national level group was found to be much superior, on the self hit and stop test than any other group. Damras et al. (1990) constructed a Hockey skill test and developed the norms for college students. Samples for constructing a Hockey skill test were sixty Khonkaen University students who enrolled in physical education activity (Hockey). 30 boys and 30 girls were tested by the constructed test. The test consisted of six sub tests which were the push, the hit, the dribble, the flick, the ball passing and the goal shooting. The subjects were tested twice at one week interval. After that they were divided into two teams to play the game and three experts scored each student. Their scores were then statistically analysed. Samples for setting up the norms of Hockey skill for college students were 400 college students who enrolled in Hockey class from 10 colleges (20 boys and 20 girls from each college). These samples were selected by a simple random sampling method and were tested by the constructed test which had already been improved. The test scores were then statistically analysed to set up the norms. The obtained data

46 Review of Related Literature 27 from sixty Khonkaen University students were analysed in terms of reliability and validity by pearson s product moment correlation coefficient. To set up the norms, the obtained data from 400 college students were analysed in terms of means and standard deviation by normal curve. The results of the study reveals that the reliability and validity coefficient of college Hockey skill test for the boys were 0.76 and 0.67 and the girls were 0.80 and Nieuwenhuis et al. (2002) analysed the kinanthropometric, motor-physical and psychological variables and specific Field Hockey skills that influence Field Hockey performance at the age of 14 to 15 years. The two top girls Field Hockey teams in the North West Province (South Africa) U/15 (under 15 age group) Field Hockey league ( n = 27), as well as the two teams who ended at the bottom of the league ( n = 25), were exposed to a test battery. The 52 subjects were classified according to their league results as successful and less successful. The test battery consisted of nine Field Hockey skills tests, 16 kinanthropometric tests and six physical-motor ability tests and two sport psychological tests. A statistical analysis of the data was done for descriptive purposes and statistical significances between the successful and less successful players were determined. Results indicated meaningful differences in some variables. A prediction function was therefore developed consisting of eight variables that successfully distinguished between successful and less successful 14 to 15 year old female Field Hockey players.