Appendix 1: Manta tow survey data

Transcription

1 Appendix 1: Manta tow survey data Appendix 1A: Survey of Nolloth village marine territory, 14 October 1997, from south to north.* Tow Dead Live Soft Sand Rubble Fish Bomb Note # coralshard corals craters corals yes Wailesi Bay, at south edge of sasi area yes Wailesi Bay no Reef crest about 200 m out from rocky beach no In front of sandy beach near Tanjung Wailalone no Some sandy bottom between corals no Wailalone at kewang guard house. Mixed corals and sand; beach sandy. 7-8 No data: sharp drop to deep water. North of Wailalone no Start of the best trochus harvesting area no Tinauw, part of best trochus harvesting area, at guard house yes Tinauw, near Tanjung Hatiwan. Mixed sand/ coral bottom. Part of best harvesting area no Reef edge m off beach. Lots of sandy bottom. Good trochus area yes Hatiwan area. Mixed bottom. End of best harvesting area no Hatiwan/Batu Goyang. Large sandy bottom no Hatiwan. Diverse corals; 2-4 m deep no Hatiwan, wide exposed reef shelf, few trochus no Sandy bottom; no coral reef yes Last tow in sasi area no Non-sasi area at Umisini, reef slope close to shore no From Hatule kaslekano to Hatusun; narrow reef close to shore no From Hatusun to Asal no Asal area. North of here are rocks and dead intertidal reef flats, no living coral reef. Rocky shore with cobbles. * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10% living cover on hard bottom, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. Appendix 1B: Manta tow data from Ihamahu territory, south of Nolloth sasi area.* Tow DeadcoralsLive hard coralssoft coralssand Rubble Fish Bomb craters Yes n.d. Yes n.d. Yes * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10% living cover on hard bottom, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. 288 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

2 Appendix 1C: Survey data from marine territories of Haruku and Sameth.* Tow Dead Live Soft Sand Rubble Fish Bomb Notes coralshard corals craters corals yes Start at north end of Sameth petuanan yes no yes Site of butterfly fish count yes Off a rocky point no Facing sandy beach. 7 3,then 1then 4 then no Bottom sandy. No survey over sand to none 0 0 then south of here no In front of Sameth graveyard no Haruku territory, seaward of rock groin no Sea grass bed no Sasi area, sand and sea grass no Sasi area in front of kewang house, almost at river no River mouth; corals covered in sediment. A few porites, fire corals and soft corals are alive. * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10% living cover on hard bottom, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. Appendix 1D: Survey results for Toisapu to Hutumuri.* Area Tow Dead Live Soft Sand Rubble Fish Bomb Notes # corals hard corals craters corals Toisapu yes Start on south edge of Toisapu cove yes Sand between rocks and corals; 2-4 m deep no Rocky bottom with sand patches; few corals; no beach no Hard bottom. Lapaut no Cliff shore. Depth 2-3 m no Rocky bottom, 3-5 m deep, sand patches. Sandy beach no Sandy bottom, then rocks no 4-8 m deep. Hutumuri no Depth 5-10 m. Bottom hard with Head land sand patches no Mostly rocky bottom no Hutumuri Bay. Mostly hard bottom yes Water more shallow. Rock with sandy strips. Hutumuri yes Mostly hard bottom. Village no 1-3 m deep no Bottom rocky. 5 m deep no Rock with sand patches. End in middle of Bay. * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10%, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. Appendices 289

3 Appendix 1E: Survey results for Dusun Airlow in front of Kampung Wemi.* Tow Dead Live Soft Sand Rubble Fish Bomb Notes # coralshard corals craters corals no Pintu Kota area. Steep cliff with fringe of barnacles and seaweed drops to 10 m depth. Rocky bottom no Cliff with a narrow intertidal strip. Bottom mixed rocks and sand m deep no Bottom mixed sand and rocks. 4-5 m deep no Bottom rocks, sand and massive corals no Intertidal flat more extensive. Corals more varied no * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10%, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. Appendix 1F: Seri cove survey data from boundary with Wemi to Tanjung Vanahu.* Tow Dead Live Soft Sand Rubble Fish Bomb Notes # coralshard corals craters corals no Depth 4 m. Bottom mixed rocks and sand, with corals no Depth 4-5 m. Mostly hard bottom no In front of main path/road into village no Half way point along the intertidal flat no Deep water off cliff face at end of transect, with depth over 10 m no Depth 5-10 m; hard bottom no Depth 5-10 m, hard bottom, corals few. Narrow fringe of boulders along shore no Cliff steep into deep water. Over 10 m deep, less than 25 m from shore. Narrow boulder beach. Bottom hard, boulders no Bedrock beach. Depth 5-10 m, 25 m from shore no Steep bedrock shore plunging to 10 m. Hard bottom no Cobble and sand beach. (rocks) Deep water 10 m from shore no Depth 2-4 m. Rocky bottom no As above. * Numbers refer to coral cover categories, i.e., 0 = no hard bottom for corals, 1 = <10%, 2 = 11-30%, 3 = 31-50%, 4 = 51-75%, 5 = %. Abundance indicators: 0 = absent, = rare, - = uncommon, + = common, ++ = abundant, +++ = superabundant. 290 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

4 Appendix 2: Overview of 28 villages in performance study Village Economic Sasi any Marine Dominant Average Average score * kind sasi religion age years of status education Nolloth Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Haruku Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Kabau Mean yes yes Muslim N Std. Deviation Pelauw Mean yes yes Muslim N Std. Deviation Makariki Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Ihamahu Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Siri-Sori IslamMean yes yes Muslim N Std. Deviation Itawaka Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Paperu Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Porto Mean yes yes Christian N Std. Deviation Morela Mean yes yes Muslim N Std. Deviation Seith Mean yes no Muslim N Std. Deviation Tengah-Tengah Mean yes yes Muslim N Std. Deviation Rutah Mean no no Muslim N Std. Deviation Soahuku Mean yes lost Muslim N Std. Deviation Batu dua Mean no no Muslim N Std. Deviation Hitu Mean no no Muslim N Std. Deviation Tiow Mean no lost Muslim N Std. Deviation Appendices 291

5 Village Economic Sasi any Marine Dominant Average Average score * kind sasi religion age years of status education Eri Mean no no Muslim N Std. Deviation Seilale Mean yes no Muslim N Std. Deviation Iha Mean no lost Muslim N Std. Deviation Ouw Mean no no Christian N Std. Deviation Booi Mean no no Christian N Std. Deviation Saparua kota Mean no lost Christian N Std. Deviation Tuhaha Mean yes lost Christian N Std. Deviation Hulaliu Mean no lost Christian N Std. Deviation Seri Mean no lost Christian N Std. Deviation Hutumuri Mean no no Christian N Std. Deviation Total Mean N Std. Deviation * = Considering boat, gear, house and land ownership 292 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

6 Appendix 3: Comparative information/ statistics of six case study villages Appendix 3A: Types of fish most commonly caught in each case study village. Fish type Local name Latin name Nolloth Haruku Tuhaha Hulaliu Seri Hutumuri Coral Balobo Hemiramphus japonicus X Batu-Batu Apogon niger X X X Bobara Caranx melampygas X X X X X X Bulana Mugil cephalus X Gaca Lutjanus sp X X X Garopa Epinephanus merra X X X X X X Gora Holocentrus sp X X Gorara Lutjanus basmira X X X Gotana Acanthurus sp X Hiu Carcharinus spp X Kapas-kapas Gerres macrosoma X X Lalosi Caesio spp X X Mata Bulan Taractes sp X Merah/kakap Lutjanus spp X X X X Piskada Sphyraena spp X Salmameti Upeneus spp X X X Samandar Siganus fuscescens X X X X Sikuda Lethrinus spp X X Tatu Balistapus spp X Pelagic Bae Etelis carbunculus X Cakalang Katsuwonus pelamis X X X X X X Julung Hemiramphus sajori X X Kawalinya Selar cryonenopthalmus X X X X Komu Auxis tharsard X X X X X X Layar Histiophorus sp X Lema Rastrelliger kanagurta X X X Lompa Thryssa baelama X X Make Sardinella sp X X X X Momar Decaptherus macrosoma X X X X X Puri / pura-pura Stolephorus sp X X Saku Albennes anastomella X Sardencis/ Amblygaster sirm X X X Sardinya Silapa Pristipomoides sieboldi X X Tatihu Thunnus corrdyla X X X X Tenggiri Gymnosarda unicolor X Tongkol Thunnus tonggol X X X Tola/patola Caranx leptolepis X X Tuing-tuing/ terbang Cypselurus sp X X X Tuna Tuna sp X X Bia Duri babi Acanthopleura spinosa X Bia Makii Conus sp X Bia Mata Bulan Turbo chrysostroma X X Bia Mika Tridacna gigas X Bia Warna Putih Cypraea sp X Gurita Octopus sp X Moluska Mollusca X Sontong Sepia spp X X X Udang Panulirus sp X Note: ikan terbang = tuing-tuing; kakap = merah. Appendices 293

7 Appendix 3B: Demographic information for case study villages. Indicator Nolloth Haruku Tuhaha Hulaliu Seri Hutumuri (Toisapu) Inhabitants (1400) Households (264) Avg. members Christian pop. 100% 95% 90% 94% 90% 95% Muslim pop 0 5% 10% 6% 10% 5% Fishers* 40% <15 Farmers n.d. 295 * % Traders (toko) few Artisans few 89 incl. laborers n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Laborers few 2 34 n.d. > 50 Government staff > % Migration no data 70/year 25/year n.d. none n.d. Tourismyes yes none none few few Primary school Junior high school none 1 1 none 1 (-) Senior high school none 1 - none none 1 (-) Gas station 2 no no No Food market 1 no no No Drug store 2 no no no no No Bank yes no no no no yes (no) Health center no yes no yes no yes (no) Water provision private and fresh, fresh, water public public public pipe pipe pumps water water wells supply supply Septic tank yes yes yes yes (95) yes yes Transportation bus, boat boat bus, mini-bus, bus, bus, motorcycle speed boat motorcycle motorcycle Communication radio mail walky-talky mail telephone mail telephone Electricity yes yes yes yes yes yes * Most people combine fishing and farming. In Nolloth 30% fish part-time; of the registered fishers in Haruku, only 20 fish full-time; in Tuhaha, most villagers fishing and farming. 294 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

8 Appendix 3C: Socio-economic data for case study villages. Average age of respondents Village Average years ± Std. Deviation (n) Nolloth ± (30) Haruku ± (30) Tuhaha ± (30) Hulaliu ± (30) Seri 42.4 ± 9.18 (29) Hutumuri ± (30) Total ± (179) Average years of education of respondents Village Average years of education ± Std. Deviation (n) Nolloth 6.20 ±.76 (30) Haruku 7.10 ± 2.29 (30) Tuhaha 7.17 ± 2.20 (30) Hulaliu 7.60 ± 2.19 (30) Seri 7.14 ± 3.25 (29) Hutumuri 7.20 ± 2.31 (30) Total 7.07 ± 2.29 (179) Fishers related to ruling elite (soa besar) 46.7% 73.3% 33.3% 53.3% 20.7% 6.9% 39.3% Religion of respondents Islam0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 40% 7% Protestant 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 60% 93% % Fishers who are members of fishing organization / group 10% 3.3% 3.4% 20.0% 10.3% 0% 7.9% % Fishers who are members of church/government groups 20.0% 20.0% 0% 33.3% 41.4% 23.3% 23.0% Appendices 295

9 Fishers opinion of sasi Important 100% 100% 90.0% 93.3% 46.4% 66.7% 83.1% Useful 0% 0% 3.3% 3.3% 10.7% 6.7% 3.9% Neutral 0% 0% 0% 3.3% 7.1% 3.3% 2.2% Not very useful 0% 0% 6.7% 0% 10.7% 10.0% 4.5% Not important 0% 0% 0% 0% 25.0% 13.3% 6.2% % Respondents satisfied to be a fisher 86.2% 83.3% 96.7% 80.0% 86.2% 89.3% 86.9% % Fishers who would change job if possible 20.0% 43.3% 31.0% 50.0% 53.6% 20.0% 36.6% Job desired for children Fishery 17.9% 7.1% 6.7% 10.3% 3.6% 8.0% 8.9% Farming 10.7% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1.8% Trade 0% 3.6% 3.3% 0% 0% 4.0% 1.8% Civil service 61% 68% 73% 72% 75% 25% 64% Wage labor 10.7% 0% 6.7% 6.9% 0% 16.0% 6.5% Others 0% 21.4% 10.0% 10.3% 21.4% 44.0% 17.3% % Fishers who collaborate with outsiders in fishing activities 10.0% 3.3% 13.8% 13.3% 20.7% 20.7% 13.6% % Fishers owning a boat None 30.0% 20.0% 30.0% 26.7% 21.4% 10.0% 23.0% Outrigger canoe 63.3% 53.3% 63.3% 70.0% 78.6% 73.3% 66.9% Motor boat 6.7% 26.7% 6.7% 3.3% 0% 16.7% 10.1% 296 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

10 % Fishers owning each gear type None 23.3% 23.3% 26.7% 23.3% 17.9% 3.6% 19.9% Hand line / spear 33.3% 30.0% 33.3% 40.0% 57.1% 32.1% 37.5% Trap / cast net 0% 0% 0% 3.3% 0% 3.6% 1.1% Set net 43.3% 46.7% 30.0% 23.3% 21.4% 35.7% 33.5% Lift net / FAD 0% 0% 10.0% 10.0% 3.6% 25.0% 8.0% Who buys fish and from what % of respondents? Buyer Consumer 73.3% 70.0% 73.3% 96.6% 51.7% 46.7% 68.5% Large trader / borok 3.3% 3.3% 0% 3.4% 0% 26.7% 6.2% Retailer 16.7% 3.3% 23.3% 0% 44.8% 20.0% 18.0% Wholesaler 6.7% 20.0% 3.3% 0% 0% 0% 5.1% Others 0% 3.3% 0% 0% 3.4% 6.7% 2.2% Where are fish sold? Local market 72.4% 76.7% 65.5% 96.6% 3.4% 17.2% 55.4% Town market 17.2% 10.0% 20.7% 0% 93.1% 82.8% 37.1% Regional market 3.4% 10.0% 3.4% 0% 3.4% 0% 3.4% Foreign market 0% 0% 0% 3.4% 0% 0%.6% Others 6.9% 3.3% 10.3% 0% 0% 0% 3.4% Average external income per year (thousand Rp) Village # respondents with external income Average external income Std. error Nolloth Haruku Tuhaha Hulaliu Seri Hutumuri Overall average Appendices 297

11 Primary source of respondents income Fishing 83.3% 70.0% 80.0% 53.3% 86.2% 73.3% 74.3% Farming 13.3% 30.0% 3.3% 26.7% 6.9% 10.0% 15.1% Forestry 0% 0% 3.3% 0% 0% 0%.6% Civil service 0% 0% 6.7% 10.0% 3.4% 3.3% 3.9% Wage labor 0% 0% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 0% 1.7% Handcrafts 0% 0% 0% 3.3% 0% 6.7% 1.7% Trade 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3.3%.6% Others 3.3% 0% 3.3% 3.3% 0% 3.3% 2.2% Secondary source of income Fishing 22.7% 27.6% 21.1% 46.2% 10.7% 23.1% 25.3% Farming 45.5% 51.7% 63.2% 34.6% 71.4% 61.5% 54.7% Livestock 0% 0% 5.3% 0% 7.1% 11.5% 4.0% Forestry 0% 6.9% 0% 0% 0% 3.8% 2.0% Civil service 0% 0% 0% 3.8% 0% 0%.7% Handcrafts 0% 0% 0% 3.8% 0% 0%.7% Trade 9.1% 6.9% 5.3% 3.8% 3.6% 0% 4.7% Others 22.7% 6.9% 5.3% 7.7% 7.1% 0% 8.0% Tertiary source of income Fishing 20.0% 16.7% 15.4% 10.0% 18.2% 13.5% Farming 28.6% 40.0% 16.7% 7.7% 10.0% 9.1% 15.4% Livestock 14.3% 20.0% 0% 23.1% 80.0% 45.5% 34.6% % Fishers engaging in communal fishing activities 80.0% 66.7% 73.3% 80.0% 48.3% 33.3% 63.7% 298 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

12 % Fishers opinion on need to change fisheries rules Strongly agree 30.0% 10.0% 21.4% 33.3% 17.2% 20.0% 22.0% Agree 3.3% 40.0% 17.9% 30.0% 34.5% 16.7% 23.7% Neutral 10.0% 20.0% 10.7% 10.0% 10.3% 16.7% 13.0% Disagree 26.7% 6.7% 10.7% 0% 34.5% 30.0% 18.1% Strongly disagree 30.0% 23.3% 39.3% 26.7% 3.4% 16.7% 23.2% % Fishers who feel that all stakeholders should be involved in decision-making Strongly agree 72.4% 76.7% 82.8% 83.3% 37.9% 56.7% 68.4% Agree 27.6% 20.0% 13.8% 16.7% 55.2% 36.7% 28.2% Neutral 0% 3.3% 3.4% 0% 0% 0% 1.1% Disagree 0% 0% 0% 0% 6.9% 6.7% 2.3% % Who believe it acceptable to bend rules or ask for dispensation of sasi rules Strongly agree 33.3% 20.0% 34.5% 31.0% 6.9% 6.7% 22.0% Agree 20.0% 20.0% 10.3% 24.1% 24.1% 6.7% 17.5% Neutral 0% 3.3% 3.4% 0% 13.8% 10.0% 5.1% Disagree 20.0% 30.0% 27.6% 17.2% 31.0% 50.0% 29.4% Strongly disagree 26.7% 26.7% 24.1% 27.6% 24.1% 26.7% 26.0% % Who believe it acceptable to sell harvest rights Strongly agree 23.3% 0% 16.7% 0% 6.9% 0% 7.9% Agree 20.0% 10.0% 6.7% 6.7% 34.5% 13.8% 15.2% Perceptions of village decision-making style Decision- making style All agree 53.3% 44.8% 50.0% 43.3% 55.2% 58.6% 50.8% Majority agree 23.3% 17.2% 10.0% 20.0% 13.8% 20.7% 17.5% Head man decides 0% 0% 16.7% 10.0% 6.9% 3.4% 6.2% Village gov t decides 23.3% 37.9% 23.3% 26.7% 24.1% 17.2% 25.4% Appendices 299

13 Respondents perception of involvement of local groups in village decision-making Always 73.3% 53.3% 60.0% 62.1% 34.5% 43.3% 54.5% Sometimes 16.7% 20.0% 23.3% 20.7% 58.6% 43.3% 30.3% Never 10.0% 26.7% 16.7% 17.2% 6.9% 13.3% 15.2% Respondents perception of involvement of outsiders in village decision-making Always 0% 0% 0% 3.3% 0% 0%.6% Sometimes 13.3% 16.7% 23.3% 13.3% 31.0% 17.2% 19.1% Never 86.7% 83.3% 76.7% 83.3% 69.0% 82.8% 80.3% % Respondents who agree that women are involved in decision-making Always 33.3% 13.3% 10.0% 6.7% 24.1% 20.0% 17.9% Sometimes 56.7% 56.7% 66.7% 70.0% 72.4% 63.3% 64.2% Never 10.0% 30.0% 23.3% 23.3% 3.4% 16.7% 17.9% Perceptions of who has responsibility for fisheries management Govt. (all) 33.3% 26.7% 36.7% 30.0% 3.4% 10.0% 23.5% Govt. (most) 26.7% 30.0% 26.7% 46.7% 31.0% 43.3% 34.1% Shared equally 33.3% 43.3% 33.3% 23.3% 6.9% 16.7% 26.3% Mostly community 6.7% 0% 3.3% 0% 58.6% 30.0% 16.2% Economic factors in each village Economic score** % income from fishing % having external income Years fishing experience Nolloth Haruku Tuhaha Hulaliu Seri Hutumuri Total ** = Boat, gear, house, land + TV ownership 300 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

14 Appendix 4: Reasons for loss of Sasi between 1940 and 1997 Village Type of sasi lost Reasons given by local Comments (from local or modified respondents (not respondents) necessarily the whole story) 2 Institution lost Reasons not given at this Rules rewritten in 1930s in the Haruku twice and time (for full information original language (bahasa daerah). revitalized in 1930s please see case study). Renewed and rewritten in then again in Indonesian in Land sasi lost in 1990s. Compliance problems Clan territories mixed up with Kabauw rooted in conflict over land claimed by Rohomini clans. land rights. 9 Land sasi lost in 1970s. Lack of compliance caused Marine resource rules were re- Paperu Marine sasi no longer sasi to be abandoned. introduced as village government functional by regulations (still called sasi) in Marine sasi almost non- Increased pressure on fishery, More people entered fishery after Porto existent by intense competition among clove price collapsed in fishers and moral Land and sea sasi being revived. disintegration. 13 Village sasi non No reason given. Tengah-tengah -functional. 14 Land sasi lost in Compliance dropped when Sasi worked well from at least 1967 Rutah enforcement lapsed due to till Coconuts now harvested political strife in village and sold when green; dry coconuts (pro and contra raja; difficult to find in village. government unstable). Revitalization of sasi is planned. 15 Marine sasi lost Theft by outsiders who Marine sasi lost, some fishers still Soahuku by have no sasi in their village. believe there is sasi on various All villages should have resources. the same rules. 17 Land sasi lost in 1940s. Confusion over change in Village split into two desas but land Hitu Lama administrative boundaries. owned by clans in each new desa was still mixed together. 18 Sasi lost in 1950s. Conflict between church Sasi knowledge has died with the Tiouw and adat. elders. Fishery now dominated by newcomers (Butonese). 19 Land sasi lost before Poor leadership i.e., lack of Eri 1970s. coordination and poor sharing of information, led to compliance problems. 20 Sasi adat lost. Sasi taken over by the church. Seilale 21 Sasi lost sometime Rules never written down, now Iha in 1900s. lost because elders with knowledge have died. 22 Land sasi lost in Lack of interest by kepala desa, Uncontrolled theft followed lapse Ouw who is often absent and does in enforcement. not work together with adat leaders. 23 Land sasi lost in 1990s. Price of sasi product Booi (cloves) collapsed. 24 Marine and land sasi Urbanization caused Sasi abandoned at time of declining Saparua lost in 1970s. farmland to disappear, harvests on land and sea. Marine water to become polluted. rules were written down but are now lost. 25 Marine sasi adat lost Raja position taken by Land and marine sasi now Tuhaha in unsuitable person : conflict being revived. with adat leaders. (For fuller information please see case study). Appendices 301

15 Village Type of sasi lost Reasons given by local Comments (from local or modified respondents (not respondents) necessarily the whole story) 26 Marine sasi adat lost Kewang stepped down during Land and marine sasi Hulaliu in dispute with kepala desa. being revitalised. (For fuller information, please see case study). 27 Village sasi lost Village is dusun of larger desa; Some people continue to say there is Seri in 1940s. Church sasi jurisdiction with respect to church sasi for individuals. Kewang on land gradually adat law unclear and kepala persists but its job unclear. disappeared in desa not on site. 28 Sasi adat (land and Sasi adat taken over Hutumuri village) lost in 1960s. by church. Church sasi lost Sasi adat lost Sasi adat taken over by Marine sasi never existed because Kariu church. marine territory very limited. 30 Marine sasi lost. Gradual evolution into Old marine sasi was rental system. Kailolo commercial system Rental still goes on but not called lacking adat ritual. sasi anymore. 31 Wants to start marine sasi. Rohomoni 32 Sasi adat (land) Village sasi (adat) and Kewang present but non-functional. Oma modified over time. church sasi now combined to implement wishes of church leaders (jemaat). 33 Sasi adat (land) Sasi taken over by church. Kewang present but non-functional. Wassu modified over time. People now unsure whether to call their sasi adat or not. 34 Sasi adat (land) lost Sasi taken over by church. Adat ceremonies have ceased. Aboru early 80s. Kewang present but non-functional. 35 Plans to strengthen marine sasi as Sepa part of adat heritage. 37 The population is mixed with Waisamu Butonese newcomers for whom sasi (gereja) is less relevant. 38 Marine sasi revived in Amahai 40 Sasi adat lost in 1950s. Regulations not clear. Church sasi survived amalgamation Airlow Village has only dusun of this dusun with desa Nusaniwe status. because church and government are separate. 41 Land sasi and laut Poor leadership : raja s Plans to revitalize marine sasi. Amahusu lost in 1970s. rules not clear. Kewang already reinstalled in marine sasi Saniri negri accommodated in Rutang was tried. LKMD. 43 Sasi adat (village and Sasi moved to the church. Had written rules in past. Plans Leahari marine) lost after to revive marine sasi. 44 Sasi under pressure because of Latuhalat poor economy. 45 Land sasi (church) Some say church sasi still functional. Hila lost in 1990s. 47 Sasi adat lost in Sasi taken over by church. Marine sasi inactive: revitalization Haria is planned. 48 Land sasi (resource Theft of coconuts not Wakal rental system) in place controlled i.e., lack of ; abandoned enforcement mechanism. in An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

16 Village Type of sasi lost Reasons given by local Comments (from local or modified respondents (notrespondents) necessarily the whole story) 49 Sasi adat lost in Conflict between kepala Marine sasi at risk due to sale of Ulath desa and kewang caused access rights to outsiders kewang to give up sasi to (Madurese). the church. 50 Land sasi lost in 1990s. Crop failure. No process in place for Kulur reintroducing sasi to the younger generation. Sasi is cherished only by the elderly. 51 Sasi adat and marine Village leader not respected Rules not written down. Akoon sasi lost in 1970s. no sanctions, rules not clear, low compliance. Sasi moved to the church because people were more afraid of religious sanctions. 52 Marine sasi lost Marine sasi lost during war. Ameth in 1940s. Sasi adat Sasi adat moved to the church. lost in Marine sasi lost Abubu in 1980s. 54 Marine sasi lost in No kewang to enforce rules of Leinitu between 1940 and marine sasi. Sasi adat moved Sasi adat (village) to the church. lost Appendices 303

17 Appendix 5: Government Aagencies involved in fisheries management in Maluku province. Results of interviews with various agencies involved in marine resource management and development in Maluku. Management functions as follows: 1) information gathering and provision, 2) project planning, 3) project implementation, 4) evaluation of projects (physical and legal aspects), 5) enforcement of fisheries law, 6) funding of projects, 7) routine fisheries policy implementation and monitoring, and 8) licensing and collection of taxes and fees. INSTITUTION LEVEL MANAGEMENT FUNCTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES BAPPEDA Provincial * * * * * * The only coordination body Limited capacity for cross-sectoral impact (Planning at the provincial level assessments Board) Focus on large development projects District * * * * * * The only coordination body Limited capacity for cross-sectoral impact at the district level assessments Focus on large development projects Fisheries Provincial * * ** ** * * * * Hum an resources available Limits of authority not clear Agency Means and operational budget limited (Dept. Staff not highly skilled Agriculture) District * * ** ** * * * * Hum an resources available Authority unclear; not autonomous from (Kotamadya) provincial office District * * ** ** * * * * Autonomous (in theory) Authority unclear (Kabupaten) Human resources available Budget and means limited Scientific data limited Sub-district * * * * * Close to the field programs Authority limited and projects Means limited Budget limited Human resources limited (quantity and quality) Top-down system Staff motivation poor Police Province and * * The only investigation body Limits of authority unclear relative to navy District (KUHAP) Motivation low Human resources available Means limited Operational budget small Sub-district ** * * The officers are available at Authority unclear the village level Motivation low Means limited Operational budget small 304 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

18 INSTITUTION LEVEL MANAGEMENT FUNCTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Navy Provincial * ** * * Human resources available Operate only at the provincial level Full authority (SK Pangab) Patrol deep water areas, not inshore Means available Collaboration and coordination with Budget available police are weak Good reputation in the community Dept. of Provincial * * ** ** * * * Human resources Motivation poor Transport Operational budget available Supporting means limited (Perhubungan Authority (supported by law) Laut) District * * ** ** * * Authority Motivation poor Means limited Operational budget small Human resources weak Sub-district * * * * Close to the activities Authority insufficient Money and means limited Human resources inadequate Environment Provincial * * Human resources inadequate Bureau Weak laws No role in coordination Jurisdiction and authority unclear Relationship with environment section of BAPPEDA is unclear Dept. Forestry Provincial * * * * * Direct authority under CITES Budget and means limited (Resource to protect endangered species Motivation weak conservation section) Jurisdiction unclear Limited to protected species and national parks; no input into fishing quotas Law Bureau Provincial * * Works well with Fisheries Agency and other agencies Regional and Provincial Human resources available Authority unclear relative to provincial district (Governor) Motivation offices of national departments government District * * * * Close to the activity Budget and means limited head offices (Bupati) Extremely busy Sub-district (Camat) Village Village * * * ** * * * Motivation Authority unclea government (Kepala desa) Direct access to fishers Budget and means limited offices Traditional institutions in Heavy workload place (partial) Top-down system Social and cultural legitimacy Adat institutions lack legal standing Appendices 305

19 Appendix 6: Translated Sasi rules from three villages (Nolloth, Ihamahu, and Itawaka) Appendix 6A: Nolloth Village Sasi Rules POSITION, DUTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NOLLOTH S KEWANG In accordance to its role among the village community, also as an institution that developed from the community s awareness, and as assistance to the village government, the Kewang holds the following position, duties and functions: 1. The Kewang or the Forest Police holds a position as an organization in the village, which in this case has to do the following tasks: a. To look after, maintain or develop all of the properties (forest or sea) belonging to the community and the village within the village territory. b. To perform as instructed by the Kepala Desa (Village Chief) in order to keep the continuation of the environment and to defend it. 2. In order to perform the above mentioned tasks, the Kewang or Polisi Hutan has the function to carry out all kind of activities that bring happiness and welfare to the community through the environment with an approval and monitored by the Kepala Desa. RIGHTS, AUTHORITY AND OBLIGATION OF THE KEWANG I. RIGHTS 1. Every Kewang member has the right to give ideas in the Kewang meeting. 2. Every Kewang member has the right to wear the Kewang uniform/clothing. 3. Every Kewang member has the right to accept sasi harvested coconuts shared among the Kewang members and coconuts of their own effort. 4. Every Kewang member who is on duty at the time when certain conflicts occur within the community and therefore need to resolve it, has the right to receive transportation fee. II. AUTHORITY 1. Controlling for safety within the village territory (forest and sea). 2. Decide on every barrier that brings disadvantages to the community. 3. Review on all of the accomplishment and make effort for improvement. 4. Giving advice/suggestions to the Kepala Desa according to their duties. III. OBLIGATIONS 1. Attend the Kewang meetings. 2. To keep the meeting under control and functioning smoothly/politely. 3. Maintain the Kewang privacy. 4. Support every village governmental policy. 5. To accept and decide on every trespassing of the sasi regulation. 6. Rejecting any conflicts that occur due to civil cases or criminal cases. 7. To keep actively in touch with all governmental components and congregational servants. 8. To report to the Kepala Desa all conflicts and development that occur within the village which are related to the Kewang s tasks. Stated in: N o l l o t h On: January 1, 1990 Kepala Desa 306 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

20 NOLLOTH S SASI REGULATIONS CHAPTER I S E A Section As of January 1, 1990, the territory of covers an area of 125,000 m_ starting along the 2.5 km long coastal line, from Umisin beach (Batu Berlubang) to Wailessy beach (border with Ihamahu) and further to the sea, to a depth of 25 m. 2. No one, either the Nolloth community nor any other villagers is allowed to do any activities at all within the sasi territorial waters, i.e., a. The hauling of fish nets if swimming is required to do so, b. Diving for hunting fish, c. Swimming, except for tourists who have a permit from the Kepala Desa. 3. No one is allowed to take any marine products from areas within the sasi territorial waters,such as: a. Trochus spp., b. Turbo spp., c. Bia caping-caping, d. Sea cucumbers of any species, e. Corals. 4. For those who intend to take stones, sands or gravel for private use, they should ask for a permit from the Kepala Desa, and this should be ackowledged by the Pakter or Kewang Besar or the Kewang s Secretary. 5. It is forbidden to sell stones, sand and gravel to any other villagers. 6. It is forbidden for anyone at all to fish using toxic matters, including traditional medicines such as tuba roots etc. CHAPTER II L A N D Section 1: Wood 1. Any community member is forbidden to take wood for fuel from other people s property/farmland. 2. Wood for household purposes can be taken from other people s farm property if permitted by the owner. 3. The community are not allowed to cut off: a. Langsat offspring to make spears/weapons, etc., b. Manggis offspring to make spears/weapons etc., c. Durian offspring to make sailing masts etc. 4. All kinds of manggis stems are not allowed to be peeled off. 5. The community members are not allowed to climb and take young durian fruit from the tree. Section 2: Coconuts 1. No one is allowed to pick up any fallen off coconuts if these do not belong to them. 2. Those who do not have a house within their farm property (dusun), are not allowed to bring home his coconuts by passing through other people s farm property. 3. Those who are taking their coconuts from their farm property home at the same time when sasi closes, should have a permit from the Pakter or Kewang Besar. 4. Coconut owners who intend to make coconut oil within the coconut plantation, may only do so when sasi is opened. 5. When sasi is closed, it is forbidden for anyone at all to collect and eat young coconuts, even if it is from his own plantation. 6. When sasi is closed, it is not allowed to take home coconut oil from the plantation. 7. Those who have picked and collected their coconuts during the time when sasi is opened but did not have enough time to take all of them during that time, must report to the Pakter or Kewang Besar to get permission to take the coconuts home during the time when sasi is already closed. If not, the coconuts cannot be taken home. 8. Every community member who intends to cut down a coconut tree for housing purposes, should have a permit from the Pakter or Kewang Besar. They also have an obligation to plant or exchange one tree for every tree cut down. 9. No one is allowed take young coconut leaves when sasi is closed, except when it is for public/ congregation use, through deliberation with community leaders. 10. Every head of the family that takes a coconut fruit during the time when sasi is opened, must bring in a sasied coconut. Appendices 307

21 Section 3: Sago 1. Anyone who cuts down the sago tree for processing must not leave the stem to stick out for more than 30 cm long. 2. Before cutting down the sago tree, the cutter must first have cleaned the area around the sago tree within a minimum radius of twice the length of the sago stem. 3. Besides cleaning down the area around the sago tree, the edges of the tree should be cut down first, so that the other plants around the sago tree will not be destroyed when the sago tree is cut down. 4. When cutting off sago palms for roofing or for tumang, the process of cutting should be the same as the process when cutting down the sago tree. 5. When cutting off sago leaves from a tree, the leaves should not be cut off from more than one branch. 6. Cutting off sago leaves should be done at one s own plantation and if done at others, then the cutter should have a permit from the plantation owner. 7. Sago leaves for tumang use, should only be taken from one stem and notmore than that. 8. Anyone who processes sago in the area of Seram is not allowed to cut sago leaves from trees within the territory of Nolloth. Section 4: Sugar Palm 1. When sasi is closed, no one is allowed to cut off the stem to make brooms (sapu lidi). 2. When sasi is opened, no one is allowed to cut/take sugar palm from other people s plantation, except if permitted by the owner. 3. It is forbidden to cut off gemutu at other people s plantation, unless permitted by the owner. Section 5: Areca Nut (Pinang) 1. No one is allowed to take young areca nuts except when permitted by the Pakter/Kewang Besar. 2. The stem of the areca nut is also not allowed to be cut off, except when permitted by the Kewang Besar/Pakter. Section 6: Pineapples 1. No one is allowed to take a young pineapple fruit. 2. It is also forbidden to have other people s pets or cows eat or destroy the pineapple plants. 3. Cow owners are not allowed to feed either old or young pineapples to their cows. Section 7: Bananas 1. No one is allowed to cut down young banana trees. 2. Only one stem per tree is allowed to be taken for use. Section 8: Jackfruit/Cempedak 1. No one is allowed to take young cempedak fruits. 2. It is also forbidden to cut down young cempedak stems or which still bear fruits. CHAPTER III GENERAL Section 1: Salele/Etang 1. No one is allowed to open or break the salele/etang that has been put on acertain thing without permission from the one who puts it there i.e., a. Salele/etang in front of houses doors, b. Salele/etang at trees or plants, c. Salele/etang at goti, etc. Section 2: Foreigners 1. Every newcomer/foreigner is not allowed to enter the village territory without first having a permission from the Kepala Desa, Pakter and Kewang Besar. 2. The foreigner who has already obtained a permit must obey all of the regulations within the village territory. 3. Foreigners who arrive with boats/vessels are not allowed to leave their boats along the territorial coastline. 308 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

22 Section 3: Identification marks 1. No one either the community member or foreigners are allowed to wear clothes or attributes that belong to the Kewang. 2. No one is allowed to use the sound instrument usually used by the Kewang (shell). Section 4: Problems/Difficulties 1. No community member is to take justice into his own hands when he is still within the village territory. 2. No one is allowed to do things that may bring uneasiness to others. 3. When a problem arises that needs resolving by the Kewang, the one involved should pay the costs for: a. Getting people to come or be present or keeping them away, b. Keeping the cloves safe at harvest time, c. The plantation commission, d. Counting the plants/trees and deciding on the borders. Section 5: Others 1. When sasi is closed, no one is allowed to wear a hat, white towel, white shirt and use an umbrella. 2. When sasi is closed during the months February to August, no one is allowed to turn on the gasoline light, lobe or torch within the forest at night, unless permitted by the Pakter and Kewang Besar. 3. Sounds from chain saws, tape recorders, drums, etc. are also not allowed. Section 6: Additions 1. These sasi regulations are adapted to Kewang regulations. 2. Anyone who breaks these regulations will have to pay a certain fee as stated hereafter. 3. If sometime in the future there seems to be any error or mistake in these regulations, it will be corrected. 4. The sasi regulations are valid from the day they are decreed. Decreed in: N o l l o t h On: January 1, 1990 Acknowledged/ Legalized: 1. Pakter Appendices 309

23 Appendix 6B: Sanction/Penalties for Trespassing Sasi in Nolloth CHAPTER I SEA Section Quite clear 2. a. b. c. - Pay a fine of Rp25,000 per person 3. Pay a fine of: a. Rp7,500 per individual big/small b. Rp25,000 per individual big/small c. Rp2,500 per individual big/small d. Rp1,000 per individual big/small e. Rp5,000 per plant big/small 4. Pay a fine of: Rp5,000 for rocks per m_ Rp7,500 for sand per m_ Rp10,000 for gravel per m_ 5. Pay a fine of: Rp10,000 for rocks per m_ Rp12,500 for sand per m_ Rp15,000 for gravel per m_ 6. Pay a fine of Rp100,000 or undergo further prosecution by higher authorities according to the regulations Section 1: Wood 1. Pay a fine of Rp5, Pay a fine of Rp10, Pay a fine of Rp12, Pay a fine of Rp25, Pay a fine of Rp1,000 for each fruit CHAPTER II LAND Section 2: Coconuts 1. Pay a fine of Rp500 for each fruit 2. Pay a fine of Rp250 for each fruit 3. Pay a fine of Rp500 for each fruit 4. Pay a fine of Rp250 for each fruit 5. Pay a fine of Rp500 for each fruit 6. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 for each bottle of oil 7. Pay a fine of Rp250 for each coconut 8. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 for each tree 9. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 for each coconut tumbak 10. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 / family or remove weeds from the lawn appointed by the Kewang with an approvalfrom the Kepala Desa Section 3. Sago 1. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 for each tree 2. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 for each tree 3. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 for each tree 4. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 for each tree 5. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 for each branch 6. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 for each plantation 7. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 for each stem 8. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 Section 4: Sugar Palm 1. Pay a fine of Rp500 for each stem 2. Pay a fine of Rp250 for each stem 3. Pay a fine of Rp1,000 for each lirang 310 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

24 Section 5: Areca Nut 1. Pay a fine of Rp1,000 for each tree 2. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 for each tree Section 6: Pineapples 1. Pay a fine of Rp1,000 for each fruit 2. The cow owner has to pay a fine of Rp1,500 for each fruit 3. Pay a fine of Rp1,000 for each tree Section 7: Bananas 1. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 for each tree 2. Pay a fine of Rp500 for each stem Section 8: Jackfruit/Cempedak 1. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 for each fruit 2. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 for each fruit Section 1: Salele/Etang 1. Pay a fine of: a. Rp10,000 b. Rp5,000 c. Rp5,000 Section 2: Foreigners 1. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 per person 2. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 per person 3. Pay a fine of Rp10,000 per boat CHAPTER III GENERAL Section 3: Identfication marks 1. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 per person or clean the streets within the village, as appointed by the Kewang after having reported to the Kepala Desa 2. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 per person or the same as 3.1 Section 4: Problems/Difficulties 1. They are sentenced to gather and carry 25 baskets of sand after reporting to the Kepala Desa 2. They are sentenced to gather and carry 20 baskets of sand after reporting to the Kepala Desa 3. The cost that they have to pay are as follows: a. Each Kewang member gets Rp1,000 b. Each Kewang member gets Rp2,500 c. Each Kewang member gets Rp1,500 d. Each Kewang member gets Rp1,500 Section 5: Others 1. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 per person 2. Pay a fine of Rp2,500 per person or pulling out weeds at places as appointed by the Kewang after reporting to the Kepala Desa 3. Pay a fine of Rp5,000 per person or the same as point 5.2 above Section 6: Addition Points 1-4 are quite clear Decreed in: N o l l o t h Acknowledged/Legalized: On: January 1, 1990 Appendices 311

25 Appendix 6C: Ihamahu Village Sasi Rules Ihamahu s Kewang Board Consultant Chairman Vice Chairman Secretary Treasurer : Bapak Raja (Upu Latu/Ketua Adat) M.R. Lilipaly : Mr. Justhinus Siauta : Mr. Daniel Pattinaya : Mr. Zefnath Nendissa : Mr. Selwanus Hitipeuw The board also contains the following divisions: Funding Security Reforestation Adat Law Public Relations : Mr. Fredy Sopacua : Mr. Petrus Leatemia : Mr. Jermias Pattinaya : Mr. Onesimus Sahetapy : Mr. Jusuf Paliama Ihamahu s Kewang Regulations Ever since the Ihamahu Kewang Corps (Korp Kewang Ihamahu) made their comeback and started functioning again, the previous regulations are re-established along with other, new regulations which are considered necessary, such as regulations related to the Environmental Concept of the National Development. All the regulations are still maintained and upheld. The community also lives by and acknowledges them. Those regulations are as follows: 1. Before cutting down a sago tree, one must climb the tree and cut down the branches first. 2. The cutting down of a sago tree should not bring about destruction to other sago trees. 3. When squeezing the sago debris (ela) to get the extract, the waste water (air goti) should not flow into the river. 4. The stem and mid-rib (sahani) used for getting the extract (goti), should be taken from the sago tree to be cut down, and not from other sago trees. 5. When cutting sago leaves for the purpose of making a roof, at least five whole branches should be left on each tree and should not be cut off. 6. Women are prohibited to do the washing at the upper course of the river when someone is extracting sago at the lower course. 7. When cutting down the tree to get wood for household purposes, the branches should be cut down first before the tree itself. This intention should be reported to the Kewang Chief (Kepala Kewang) or the Vice Chief two days before the activity takes place. 8. Other villagers from outside Ihamahu who wish to enter the sago woods to work on getting sago extract or getting wood for household purposes, must report to the Kewang Chief and must possess a Work Permit as well as receive guidance and pay a certain amount of fee to the Village Treasury or Kewang before they are allowed to enter the woods. 9. Those who enter the woods at the time when the trees are budding and blooming should not make any noise. 10. Walking in the woods with an open umbrella is prohibited. 11. Throwing at the durian tree bearing fruits is prohibited. 12. Climbing a durian tree when the fruits are still unripe is prohibited. 13. Taking the mangrove s bark for reinforcement of fishing nets is prohibited, unless permitted by the Kewang. 14. Taking the young mangroves for any ceremonial purposes at all is prohibited unless permitted by the Kewang. 15. Picking unripe fruits from the trees is prohibited. 16. Using explosives for fishing is prohibited. 17. Destruction or harvest of coral reefs, sea cucumbers, trochus, tridacna for certain purposes or export out of the village is prohibited. 312 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

26 18. Other villagers are prohibited to take sand or stones from areas within the Ihamahu territory unless permitted by the Kewang or the Land Owner (Tuan Dusun). 19. Other villagers are prohibited to take tali kamatol from areas within the territory of Ihamahu unless permitted by the Kewang. 20. Roofs (gaba-gaba) are not to be sold to other villages. 21. Sago plantation owners who wish to put their plantation for lease should report to the Kewang 2 x 24 hours beforehand in order to arrange for the Kewang to supervise the leasing. 22. Land owners who wish to open up their piece of land for plantation use such as corn plantations, should first report to the Kewang. The Kewang will then consider whether this is feasible (in terms of fertility and environmental/natural resources maintenance perpetuation). 23. Embedded bagan which destroys coral reefs is prohibited. 24. Fishing using small mesh size nets is prohibited. 25. Fishing with nets during the day is prohibited, except for schooling. 26. Littering along the coastal area is prohibited. 27. Destroying/cutting off mangroves is prohibited. Special Regulations about Sasi Sasi is an effective way of managing or preserving natural resources, which has basically been put into practice by the previous generations until now. Some of the sasi regulations are also confirmed by the Kewang regulations. Those regulations are as follows: 1. When sasi is closed, taking coconuts either from the tree or the ones fallen from the tree is prohibited. 2. When sasi is closed, taking coconut shoots for any purpose at all is prohibited. 3. Taking dry coconut trunks for fuel wood is prohibited unless permitted by the Kewang. 4. Cutting down coconut trees for household purposes is prohibited unless permitted by the Kewang. 5. Taking palm leaves for making brooms is prohibited unless sasi is opened or announced so by the Kewang. 6. When the sasi is opened, all the coconut plantations should be cleaned of undergrowth. 7. Before the sasi is closed, every coconut plantation owner should give some of their harvest to the Kewang members and non-native governmental officials who work for the village, including the priest. 8. The processes of taking palm leaves are also arranged with sasi. Two or three days after sasi on coconuts is opened, sasi for taking the palm leaves is also opened. 9. Sasi kelapa for coconuts in the trees is opened once every three months for the people to climb the trees. However, if many coconuts have fallen off the trees, sasi for fallen-off coconuts is also opened for three days. Sasi is a traditional (adat) way of management that should be perpetuated. The closing and opening of sasi is done with a special ceremony according to the adat. However, the church is also involved and through its prayers, it supports all the crops which we believe are the Almighty s gift for us. Any transgressions are resolved according to the adat, followed by paying a fine which depends on the type of transgression made by the community member. When the transgression made is minor, it can be resolved by giving guidance and counseling only. Appendices 313

27 Types of Transgressions and the Penalties In the 1960s, anyone who practiced a transgression towards the Kewang regulations had to pay a penalty/fine. The types of penalty/fine that they had to pay are as follows: Table 1. Concerning sago wood No. Types of Transgressions Fine 1. Cutting down the sago tree without first sweeping the lawn. Rp Cutting down the sago branches, only leaving four whole branches. Rp Cutting off sago branches for roofing purposes without sweeping the lawn. Rp Cutting down the sago tree without first cutting down its branches. Rp Destructing young sago trees when cutting down a sago tree. Rp Cutting down a young sago tree. Rp Taking/cutting off sago leaves to make sago extract (tumang) without using a sickle. Rp Cutting off young sago branches to make a fence. Rp Stealing one unripe durian. Rp Stealing one unripe coconut. Rp Stealing one unripe pineapple. Rp Stealing or cutting off unripe bananas. Rp5.000 Table 2. Concerning coconut wood No. Types of Transgressions Fine 1. Cutting of coconut shoots. Rp Taking coconuts when sasi is closed. Rp Stealing one unripe coconut. Rp Taking coconut branches when sasi is closed. Rp Cutting down coconut trees that bear fruits. Rp Cutting down the woods. Rp Cutting down or destructing mangroves. Addressed to related institutions for further processing 8. Burning down forests especially parts containing clean water sources. - As above 9. Destroying coral reefs, stealing sea cucumbers and trochus and any other marine biotas. - As above 314 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

28 Appendix 6C: Itawaka Village Sasi Rules A. Base THE GOVERNMENT OF ITAWAKA KECAMATAN SAPARUA THE KEWANG ORGANIZATION OF ITAWAKA THE STATUTE AND BYLAWS 1. The Itawaka s LMD Decree dated March 14, 1995 about the establishment of the Itawaka s Kewang statute and bylaws. 2. The Itawaka Kewang members resolution for the establishment of the statute and bylaws, dated May 22, B. Home Affairs 1. Aim and objective The aim and objective of the Itawaka s Kewang statute and bylaws establishment is to provide work guidelines for implementing the tasks carried out by the LMD in a responsible useful and successful way. 2. The duties and responsibilities of the Kewang a. The duties and responsibilities of the Kewang are to monitor over all the land and marine resources that are sources of income to the village, within the territory of Itawaka. b. To monitor over the area and borders of the Itawaka territory. 3. The Kewang Organization structure of Itawaka Chief - Nikodemus Papilaya Vice Chief - Paulus Sakalessy (Pakter) Secretary - Izac Papilaya Treasurer - David Sopacua Public Relations - Abraham Sahetapy - Matheos Sopacua Kewang chief for the forests - Pieter Papillae Kewang chief for the Tanah Iha - Alfaris Siahaya Advisors/Patron - The head and staff of the LMD 4. The Kewang s regulations a. On land, during the sasi period: 1. It is prohibited to climb the coconut trees. 2. It is prohibited to pick up coconuts that have fallen on the ground. 3. It is prohibited to pick/cut off young coconuts. 4. It is prohibited to take/cut off young coconut leaves (daun ketupat). 5. It is prohibited to cook coconut oil within the plantation area. 6. It is prohibited to bring in young coconut leaves (daun ketupat) from other villages. 7. Villagers who are not members of the Kewang body, are not allowed to wear the red handkerchief (lenso berang) when entering the plantation area. 8. It is prohibited to cut off/chop down young wood and bamboo (loleba) within the territory of the Iha land (tanah Iha). 9. During the period when sasi is closed, at least after 40 days, there is a possibility for the community to pick/gather coconuts when required, by asking for a permit letter from the Kewang chief (Kepala Kewang/Pakter) and by paying an administration fee of Rp2,000 (two thousand rupiahs). 10. Those who own ornamental coconut trees within the territory of Itawaka do not have to have sasi applied to their coconuts, unless the ownerhimself proposed to do so. 11. Those who own coconut plantations within the territory of Paperu, must ask for a permit from the Kewang when intending to pick/gather their coconuts to bring back to Itawaka. Those who break this regulation must pay a fine of Rp1,500 (one thousand and five hundred rupiahs). b. At sea, during the sasi period: 1. It is prohibited to dive for marine resources such as trochus, sea cucumbers and others within the territorial waters of Itawaka. 2. People from outside the village are prohibited to catch fish at sea using nets. Appendices 315

29 3. It is prohibited to catch and sell ornamental fish in a way that can disadvantage the village. c. At the closing and opening time of sasi: 1. It is prohibited to cut off leaves for roofing at other people s plantations without permission from the owner. 2. It is prohibited to take the manggis skin without permission from the owner. 3. It is prohibited to let cows enter into other people s plantations without permission from the owner. 4. It is prohibited to make ketupat for sale. 5. The Itawaka and other villagers are prohibited to catch fish using explosives or other destructive materials. 6. It is prohibited to chop down sago trees before first cutting off the branches. 7. It is prohibited to destruct young sago palms. Those who break this regulation must pay a fine of Rp25,000 (twenty-five thousand rupiahs). 8. People from outside the Itawaka village are not allowed to take gravel and rocks (batu itam) along the coasts within the Itawaka territory without having a permit to do so. A fine of Rp50,000 (fifty thousand rupiahs)must be paid by those who break this regulation. Itawaka villagers themselves who intentionally take gravel or batu itam besar to sell to people outside the village without carrying a permit, should pay a fine of Rp10,000 (ten thousand rupiahs). 9. People from outside Itawaka who used wood for housing purposes and other purposes by using sensorial machinery within the territory of Itawaka without carrying a permit must pay a fine of Rp10,000 (ten thousand rupiah). 10. People from out of the Itawaka village who enter the village to work, must carry a permit and pay the following charges: 10.1 To process sugar palms Rp25, To pick cloves Rp10, To pick nutmegs Rp5, To cut wood to make a boat Rp2, To chop down fuel wood Rp1,000 d. On land, during the sasi opening period: The community members are allowed to pick/gather substantive young coconuts. e. At sea, during the sasi opening period: The opening ceremony for sasi on marine resources, such as trochus and sea cucumbers, is performed by the Pakter/Kepala Kewang, and then reported to the LMD for auctioning to the Itawaka community and people from outside the village. f. Other matters that are not included in the Kewang s regulations will be studied further and later added on as part of the statute and bylaws. 5. The obligations and responsibilities of the Kewang 1. The obligation of the Kewang is to monitor the land and marine resources of the village which are sources of income for the village and to process them so that they become money. The Kewang deposits the money to the treasurer with an acknowledgment from the Head of the LMD/Village Head (Kepala Desa) along with a receipt from the Kewang s treasurer. 2. The income from the village s land and marine resources are fully used for carrying out the governmental job in supporting the development program of the village, according to the community s desires/aspirations. 6. The work period of the Kewang board 1. Each Kewang board has a work period of 8 (eight) years, as decreed through the Kewang meeting and approved by the LMD. 2. When the work period of the Kewang board is over, the Pakter holds a meeting to end the work period of the board and elect new personnel for the new board of the Kewang. Members of the former board can be re-elected as members of the new board; those who are not re-elected will function as regular members of the Kewang. 7. The Kewang job division a. Since there are 26 members of the Kewang (not including the Kewang board), it has been decided to have four to five members of the Kewang to be on duty each month. This was decided by considering the condition and the total area of the Itawaka territory. 8. Rules for the Kewang This statute and bylaws include the following rules for the Kewang to be obeyed: a. A Kewang member who intentionally or unintentionally neglects his duty without a reasonable excuse during his month of work, will be taken action against by the board during the Kewang 316 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

30 meeting. b. During his month of work, if community members or people from outside the village who intentionally or unintentionally break the regulations stated in the statute and by laws, during the closing or opening period of sasi, the particular Kewang member who is in charge at the time must report directly to the Kepala Kewang and to have action taken against the rule breaker, without any discriminatory feelings. c. If the Kewang member or LMD member himself breaks the regulations stated in the statute and bylaws, then he must pay a fine twice as much as what a normal community member or other villager pays. d. All Kewang members must attend the Kewang meetings unless they are sick, or for family reasons or any other hindrances such as being out of the village. e. Every member who attends the Kewang meeting must sign the attendance list. f. The Kewang members are those who are Itawaka villagers living in the village. g. The members of the Itawaka s Kewang are those who are not involved in any political organizations forbidden by the government. 9. Juridical sanctions Those who intentionally or unintentionally break the Kewang s regulations mentioned above, have to undergo the following sanctions: a. The community members who climb old or young coconut trees, cut off young coconut leaves, chop down wood and bamboo within the territory of tanah Iha, catch trochus and sea cucumber, and cook coconut oil within the plantation area, must pay a fine of Rp25,000 (twenty-five thousand rupiahs). b. The community members who does the following without carrying a permit: cut off other people s roofing, peeling off manggis skin, taking fruits, allowing cows enter other people s plantations, must pay thefollowing: 1. A fine of Rp5,000 (five thousand rupiahs) to the Kewang. 2. Compensation to the owner according to the disadvantages he has caused. c. If those who break the regulations do not comply with the sanctions applied to them, they are taken to the LMD for further action. 10. The obligations of the Kewang (special notes) 1. Each Kewang member must have a red uniform and a red handkerchief (lenso berang). 2. At the opening and closing ceremony of the sasi, the Kewang members must wear their uniform and the lenso berang. 3. Every Kewang member, when carrying out his monthly work within the plantation area, must carry along with him the lenso berang and the work instruction letter signed by the Pakter/Kepala Kewang, as a trademark, to prevent other community members from intentionally acting as Kewang members. 4. The Itawaka s Kewang has a special Kewang stamp for organizational use. C. Closing This statute and bylaws of the Itawaka s Kewang are established to provide working guidelines for the Kewang to carry out its job, assist the Itawaka village government in maintaining and monitoring the area and borders of the Itawaka village as well as its land and marine resources which are sources of income for the village in supporting the development of this loveable Itawaka village. Therefore, we would ask for the goodwill of the Itawaka village head (kepala desa) as the head of the LMD to examine it, and if approved, to please endorse it. Itawaka, May 22, 1995 Appendices 317

31 THE KEWANG BOARD OF ITAWAKA Secretary, Chief, PAPILAYA N. PAPILAYA Pakter Kewang Chief of the forest SAKALESSY P. PAPILAYA Kewang Chief of Tanah Iha A.SIAHAYA Browsed and approved by Itawaka Village Head (Kepala Desa) I. L. WATTIMENA 318 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

32 Appendix 7: Fisheries rules in lease villages, Ambon and partof Seram. Sasi and non-sasi rules pertaining to the fishery in 63 central Maluku villages. Information compiled from inventory and augmented wherever possible by information from interviews, performance surveys and written sasi rules. List not necessarily comprehensive. Doubtful or unconfirmed reports indicated by (?). Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 1 Harvest of top shells, sea cucumbers, Turbo shells and Non-residents must have permission to fish Village government, kewang and church Nolloth japing-japing shells in the sasi area prohibited except in in territory. Harvest rights for top shells and get share of profits from top shells open season. No gill netting or swimming in sasi area. sea cucumbers outside of sasi area also sold. and sea cucumbers sales. Decision Use of poisons banned. No sand/rock/coral taken Gill net use by permit only. Blast fishing -making dominated by village without permission. Written sasi rules. Hereditary prohibited. government. Compliance high because kewang patrol area. Sanctions for stealing sasi resources kepala desa is firm. applied by kepala desa (Rp100,000 fine) and police. 2 Lompa and make harvest prohibited in sasi areas No coral mining, blast fishing or use All rules enforced as much as possible Haruku (river and sea) except in open season. River lompa of poisons allowed in territory. by kewang members but they lack fast harvest communal. Rotation of marine harvest rights boats and cannot get timely assistance for lompa and make fish and division of catch prescribed. from higher authorities. Adat strong, Non-residents must ask permission to fish in territory. but conflict in village and poor Bagans, karolo nets and jala nets prohibited. No economy encourage non-compliance. motorboats in river when lompa are there. Written sasi rules. Sanctions by kewang. 3 Harvest rights in sasi area (labuhan) auctioned for bagan Blast fishing prohibited. Harvest of Sasi auction fee shared by village Kabauw fishery and sea cucumbers. Only buyer (tuan sasi) is ornamental fish by permit only, government, Muslim meeting house and allowed to use nets in area. He decides harvest times. after paying fee of Rp20,000 per day. mosque. Sasi area patrolled by tuan Ketua adat sets up sasi signs in the sea. Sasi rules not sasi s men (= kewang). Profits to tuan sasi, written down. Sanctions by village government. bagan crew and net owner. Decisionmaking dominated by village government. 4 Harvest rights auctioned (lelang) 2x a year in 3 sasi areas. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Decision-making dominated by village Pelauw Buyer (tuan sasi) controls harvest times and hires guards government, which collects fees. Blast (called kewang). Net fishing only by tuan sasi or by his fishing ban not effectively enforced: permission, after payment. Hook and line fishing fishers say village staff are involved. permitted. Rules written down. Sanctions by kepala desa. Economic downturn and lack of respect for local leaders reduce compliance. 5 Whether sasi area is open or closed, locals have free Kewang present but role in marine Makariki access. However, some fishers believe there are bans management unclear. Some fishers on sea cucumbers, top shells and ornamental fish. reluctant to report violations. Economic Outsiders may fish in the territory only in open season pressures and new immigrants and then they must pay a portion of catch to village. reportedlyundermine rules. Strong Area may be closed to outsiders if deemed necessary (i.e., leadershipis key to compliance and if signs of damage or over-fishing). Decision made by enforcement. kepala desa and the villagers. Sasi rules written down including sanctions. Appendices 319

33 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 6 Sasi rules prohibit harvest of corals, sea cucumbers, top Ban on catching ornamental fish (?). Territory in two parts: Tuhaha Bay and Ihamahu shells and giant clams in the territory. Small mesh karolo eastern shore. No sasi signs in the nets, poison and blast fishing, bubus and other traps sea because area is known. Thefts of prohibited. Catch of schooling pelagic fish on the top shells from eastern shore area by sea grass bed is regulated: season open 1-2 x a year. outsiders is a problem. Both land Mangroves protected. No taking sand or stones without and sea kewang under one hereditary permit. No littering on the shore. Written sasi rules. kepala kewang. Village in process of Patrolled by kewang with help from fishers. Sanctions by strengthening sasi. Sasi fish catches used kewang unless it is a police matter (destructive gears or to support community celebrations. mangrove rules). Adat ceremonies supported by prayer. Perceptions of fishers role in decisionmaking are varied. Compliance seen as high. 7 Sasi area auctioned by village government for harvest of LKMD has developed fisheries rules. Control over access seen as strong Siri sori top shells and sea cucumbers. Harvest rights currently Blast fishing prohibited. and stable; fishers cooperate held by government research institute (LIPI). Season with kewang. Perception among fishers opened every one or two years. Income shared by is that they have increasing role mosque (5%), kewang (10%) and village government (85%). in decision-making. Written sasi rules. Sanctions applied by kewang. Kewang members selected from each RT. 8 Sasi on entire territory. Harvest rights auctioned to LKMD has recently developed fisheries In past (1970s), Butonese, Makassars and Itawaka locals for all species including top shells, sea cucum- rules. Blast fishing and use people from Tuhaha purchased access bers and japing-japing (shellfish). Season opens every of poisons prohibited. rights but this has been prohibited since one or two years, as agreed by kewang and kepala desa in the belief that locals would Size of top shells harvested must exceed 8 cm. Kewang take better care of the resource and has 30 members and is official village government body also to keep profits in the village. as of Villagers help patrol the sasi area. No diving Perceptions mixed regarding permitted in sasi area. No net fishing by outsiders. No participation in decision-making. removal or sale of ornamental fish. Rules are written Sasi products marketed in Saparua. down. Sanctions from kewang include fines and Sasi ceremony includes prayers. hard labor. 9 In theory, there is sasi on sea cucumbers in a small LKMD in 1996 drafted new village Perception of fishers role in decision- Paperu sasi area but recently this has not been enforced. fisheries rules modeled on old making is mixed; depends on the Rules are written down. Kewang not functional. sasi rules. Still called sasi. Blast person sstatus. Village cooperative may fishing and use of poisons prohibited. have role as intermediary. Net fishing by outsiders requires permit. Villagers report infractions; sanctions by LKMD. 320 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

34 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 10 Harvest rights in sasi area sold for top shells, sea There is an effort being made to reinforce Proceeds of resource rental divided Porto cucumbers, giant clams, bia piring (shellfish) and sasi rules with formal village regulations. between village government and kewang. batu laga. Locals harvest the sasi area but outsiders Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Drop in clove price forced many people may share the harvest with written permission of the Bagans from Haria that fish in the territory to intensify fishing effort and sasi broke kewang and kepala desa. Hand line fishing is always must have permission and pay a fee. down. Theft of top shells is a problem. allowed. Sasi rules are written down. Kewang has 40 members, for both land and sea. Sasi signs are set up on the beach. Sanctions by kewang. 11 Top shells and sea cucumbers under sasi (lelang?). Nonae fish may not be captured by persons Very harmonious village with strong Morela Kewang imposes sanctions. from outside the village unless they pay fee. tradition of collective action. to kepala desa. Blast fishing forbidden 12 None. Land kewang controls access to marine area. No outsiders allowed to fish in the territory Land sasi resource rent is divided among Seith Some fishers believe there is marine sasi. without payment. Compressor diving using village government for development poisons is forbidden. (60%), kewang (15%) and mosque (15%). 13 Rights to sasi area (inshore to edge of reef) may be Blast fishing prohibited. Kewang supported also by shares of Tengah sold by kewang for net fishing of pelagic fish (lema and No fishing on Friday. coconut (20%) and nutmeg (10%) -tengah lalosi) and sea cucumbers harvest; otherwise, area is harvest. closed except for hand lines. Rental for pelagic fish Rp75,000 a month (or half value of catch?). Can be rented to locals or outsiders. Kewang chosen annually by villagers from candidates selected by village government. All household heads eligible but, except for the kepala kewang, members can serve only once. Chosen members pay village Rp7,500 and can then control sasi income. 14 None. Sasi lost (?); some fishers think there is None. Rutah sasi on top shells and sea cucumbers. 15 None. Marine sasi lost. However, some Outsiders not allowed to fish in territory Land sasi harvest divided among owner, Soahuku fishers say there is restriction on ornamental fish, except by permission of kepala desa. village and church. No sanctions top shells and sea cucumbers. Blast fishing and use of poisons imposedby kewang. prohibited. Rules not written down. 16 None. Blast fishing prohibited. Dusun of Waai settled by Butonese Batudua fishers.no sasi tradition. Fish in Pulau Pombo marine reserve. Gear types: bagan, hand line, fish traps (bubu). Appendices 321

35 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 17 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Economic pressures high. Hitu Outsiders allowed to fish in territory (but Lama must pay?). Catching make with lamp and jala net is prohibited. 18 None. Marine sasi lost. None. Kepala desa interested in revitalizing sasi. Tiouw Fishers mostly Butonese immigrants. 19 None. Blast fishing, use of poisons and coral mining Dusun of Nusaniwe. Never had Eri prohibited by village law after village worked marine sasi. together with Fisheries Agency and Mining Department. Up to 2 m_ of rocks for building materials may be taken by locals after payment to village. 20 None. Blast fishing, use of poisons and coral Land sasi by the church: no sanctions. Seilale mining prohibited. 21 None. Marine Sasi lost. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Iha 22 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Ouw fishers suspected of stealing from Ouw Outsiders must ask permission to fish in the Ihamahu and Nolloth sasi areas. territory. 23 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Booi Outsiders must ask permission to fish in the territory. 24 None. Marine sasi lost. New prohibitions on blast fishing and use Old marine sasi rules were written down, Saparua of poisons by LMD/LKMD, enforced by police. now lost. 25 None. Marine sasi lost but being revived. Bagan fishery by district government permit. Perception that access to decision- Tuhaha Lelang areas auctioned for net fishery. making depends on status. Economic needs may lead to non-compliance. 26 None. Marine sasi lost but being revived. New rules Bagan fishery by district government permit. Land sasi products shared with church. Hulaliu will prohibit cutting mangroves, collecting corals, Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Fishers feel not involved in decisiontaking sand from beach. Will have three sasi areas Part of territory rented out by village making. Compliance low due to where harvest rights for top shells, sea cucumbers government for harvest of top shells, economic pressures and lack of and japing-japing/mancado will be auctioned. Auction sea cucumbers (Rp40,000/d) and enforcement. limited to current village residents. ornamental fish (Rp50,000/d). 322 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

36 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 27 None. Bagan fishery regulated by district government Rules perceived as tight, well known and Seri Opinions vary, but may have had a form of sasi on permits. Borders of fishing area defined. well respected but enforcement capacity top shells and sea cucumbers in the past. Since 1970s, commercial fishers must pay limited. Decision-making dominated by contributions to village to operate bagans government. and large nets or fish for sea cucumbers and top shells. Outsiders also must hire local labor. Blast fishing and use of poisons banned. 28 None. Bagan fishery regulated by district government Most fishers live in dusun of Toisapu Hutumuri permits. (see below). 29 None. Blast fishing prohibited; enforced by police. Land sasi products shared with village Kariu government. Never was marine sasi. 30 None. Area of territory rented out for bagan fishery: Sasi on maleo bird eggs collected from Kailolo Used to be sasi on top shells. Rp500,000/3 months. beach: rental income shared between village and mosque. Tuan lelang shares egg income with his kewang or guards. 31 None. None. Considering having sasi in form of Rohomoni rentingout the territory. Rohomoni fishers suspected of blast fishing in Haruku. 32 None. None. Land sasi income shared with church. Oma Kewang non-functional. No sanctions. 33 None. None. Land sasi income shared with church. Wassu Kewang non-functional. No sanctions. Never had marine sasi. 34 None. None. Sasi income share to church. Never had Aboru marine sasi. 35 Outsiders not allowed to harvest top shells, sea Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Dusun of Sepa. Want to strengthen Rohua cucumbers, reef fish, shellfish, or take sand. marine sasi. Villagers may harvest them if they get permission. 36 Sasi area can be closed to net fishing. Blast fishing prohibited. Outside fishers must Sasi area not closed because economy Hatusua report to kepala dusun. No fishing allowed poor. on Sunday. 37 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Waisamu Outsiders must report to kepala desa for permission to fish. Rules not written down. No fishing on Sunday before 5 p.m. Appendices 323

37 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 38 Cutting mangroves forbidden. Mining corals Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Sasi area not closed because economy Amahai restricted and fee must be paid to village government. Fish trap (bubu) not allowed on corals. is poor. Marine sasi revitalized in Sasi area (out to edge of reef) can be closed for fishing Karolo nets forbidden. Small fish (puri nasi) pelagic fish, sea cucumbers, and top shells. may be caught only with scoop net (tanggu). 39 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Resource rental goes to village Tial Rules developed by village government government. Land sasi has 25-member together with kewang and villagers. Parts of kewang drawn from leading families. territory rented out for net fishing (using Kewang, government, church and bobo) to catch pelagic fish (moma, lalosi, mosque receive shares of land harvests. lema). Rights to catch ornamental fish and Kewang members must be approved sea cucumbers also sold, usually to outsiders. by villagers, not just government. 40 None. Blast fishing prohibited. Fish traps (bubu) Dusun of Nusaniwe. Church sasi has Airlow and jaring batu, a type of net, are also survived here but not in the other dusun prohibited. (Eri). Never had marine sasi. 41 None. Lost sasi rules forbade use of traps (bubu) and None. Amahusu had seasonal closure for nets. 42 None. Once tried sasi on top shells and sea cucumbers None. Traditional leaders (saniri) hold positions Rutang in in LMD. 43 None. Used to have sasi on top shells, sea cucumbers. Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Leahari Net mesh less than 1 inch used to be forbidden under sasi. Fishers from outside must get permission Was controlled by kewang who levied fines and used and pay fees to fish within sight of shore. physical punishment. Rules were written down. 44 None. Blast fishing forbidden. Throwing garbage in Fishing seasonally restricted by wind Latuhalat the sea is forbidden. Rules not written down. and waves. 45 None. None. Hila 46 None. Blast fishing and use of traps (bubu) on corals Mamala are forbidden. Pelagic (nonae) fishery not open to outsiders without permission. 47 Top shells, sea cucumbers and ornamental fish under None. Haria sasi (inactive). Forbidden to cut mangroves. Net fishing forbidden over corals or beside the wharf. 48 None. Marine sasi lost. Intertidal area of territory auctioned for two Wakal years at a time (Rp550,000). Area rented about 60 sq. m, to edge of reef. Rented only to locals, for harvest of fish. Blast fishing prohibited. 324 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

38 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 49 Top shells and sea cucumbers harvest rights rented Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Many young people starting to go after Ulath out, often to Madurese. Because of trouble between marine resources. kewang and kepala desa, sasi moved to church in 1992 and marine sasi area was closed indefinitely. 50 None. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Kulur 51 None. Used to be sasi on pelagic fish, with closed Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Akoon season most of the year and open season one month Outsiders must pay fee to fish in territory depending on abundance of fish. Offenders fined. (Rp25,000 per deployment of net) to catch reef fish and pelagic fish (lalosi). 52 None. Used to be sasi on top shells, sea cucumbers and Tourists pay fee to village to dive in Kewang was hereditary. Used to have Ameth seaweed (cincao, a source of carageenan) the territory. communal fishery i.e., sousoki. Outsiders pay to use nets in the territory. Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden (traditional poison is allowed). 53 None. Land kewang guards territory from outsiders. Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. Sousoki lasted until 1990s. Abubu Used to have sasi on top shells and sea cucumbers. Outsiders not allowed to fish in territory. Sanctions psychological (public shaming). Rumpon owners must pay fee to use territory (Rp50,000/year). 54 None. Used to be sasi on pelagic fish (momar, lalosi), Blast fishing, use of poisons and coral mining Land sasi crop shared with raja, church Leinitu top shells and sea cucumbers. Psychological sanctions. prohibited. No fishing on Sunday. Territory and schoolteachers. LMD made up of not open to outsiders. Sand and rocks may be clan leaders. taken by locals for building, but not for sale. 55 None. Stripping bark from mangroves prohibited. Church (land) sasi rules not written; no Sila Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. sanctions. Kewang are volunteers. Kepala Sand sold by village government. desa = raja = ketua adat. 56 None. Cutting mangroves and coral mining Used to have communal fishery: sousoki. Nalahia prohibited by written village law. Violators Lost in 1980s. Church sasi on coconuts fined. Blast fishing and use of poisons has no written rules or sanctions. prohibited. Since 1970s, harvest rights rented out for top shells and sea cucumbers (Rp25,000 /day) and fees collected from outsiders fishing in territory. 57 None. Used to have sasi on top shells, sea cucumbers Blast fishing and use of poisons prohibited. There is evidence of blast fishing in the Titawai and one other species of shellfish. In past, kewang used No fishing on Sunday. territory. hard labor as sanction. Appendices 325

39 Map # Sasi fisheries rules Non-sasi fisheries rules Notes Village 58 None. Used to be sasi lelang for pelagic fish (?). Blast fishing forbidden. Hitu Messing 59 None. Sea cucumbers, top shells and some fish may Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Dusun of Hila. Mamoa have been under sasi in the past. No written rules. 60 None. Marine sasi lost. Bobo nets regulated. Blast fishing and use Dusun of Hila. Waitomu of poisons prohibited. 61 None. Bagan fishery requires government permits. Dusun of Hutumuri. Fishers see fishery Toisapu as unregulated. Low involvement of fishers in decision-making. 62 No marine sasi. Village sasi forbids taking sand Blast fishing and use of poisons forbidden. Sameth people share lompa fish from sasi Sameth and rocks from beach. harvests in Haruku. Kewang not active because there are no descendents of kepala kewang line left in the village. 63 None. None. Villagers (but not kepala desa) want to Sirisori see sasi adat revived on land and sea. Amalatu 326 An Institutional Analysis of Sasi Laut in Maluku, Indonesia

40 Appendix 8: Exchange rate Rupiah/USD ( ) Value in rupiah Series Jan-96 Mar-96 May-96 Jul-96 Sep-96 Nov-96 Jan-97 Mar-97 May-97 Jul-97 Sep-97 Nov-97 Jan-98 Mar-98 May-98 Jul-98 Sep-98 Nov-98 Time Appendices 327