PAPER ID: IJIFR / V1 / E4 / 030

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1 PAPER ID: IJIFR / V1 / E4 / 030 ISSN (Online): Problematic Doping And Sports Ethics Issues: A Huge societal Concern Dr. Satish Bhardwaj Associate Professor Department of Physical Education Govt. (PG) College, Ambala Cantt Abstract In recent decades, society has undergone some far-reaching changes, with the result that doping is increasingly present in modern sport. In sports the ethics discourse belongs to the discipline of sports philosophy. Sport ethics sees its most urgent task in presenting problemfocused solutions for the doping discussion Doping in sports is a huge societal problem. No longer limited to elite athletes, it is increasingly found in amateur and school sports. It is considered a public health issue by the sport movement and public authorities worldwide, and is characterized primarily by the misuse and abuse of medicines. Because doping is becoming more and more of a problem in elite sports, antidoping and prevention programs are receiving more attention. However, current doping prevention programs that primarily involve pedagogical education in youths have not been shown to be very effective. In sports philosophy there is a discourse about ethics and morality in sports in connection with doping. This article discusses a new approach to doping prevention for athletes and a way to improve conventional doping prevention by focusing with respect to drug doping in sport will be given together with an overview of the prohibited substances. The article concludes with representation of possibilities for ethical decision-making in connection with doping. Keywords: Doping, Ethical behaviour, Athletes Performance, Anti-Doping Organisations, Drug Abuse 1 Introduction Doping does irreparable harm to sports and all athletes. The use of performance-enhancing drugs diminishes the moral and ethical principles that underpin sports. Doping destroys fair play and equitable competition, harms athletes and damages the credibility of sports. The impact of doping also extends beyond the athletes concerned or sports itself. It is a problem that affects society as a whole. This is because the benefits of sports carry well beyond playing fields. Sports are powerful vehicles for peace that forge closer relations, mutual respect and understanding between peoples. Sports also contribute to development, drawing individuals together, providing facilities and access to community services. They foster cooperation and help strengthen social ties and networks. Sports are also an important learning tool for young people. It is often during the playing of sports that children learn important values and models of good conduct that last a lifetime. Doping has the potential to cut across these many benefits, making it essential that governments, communities, sports organizations and individuals all take action to eliminate doping. The WADA s most recent definition of doping incorporates both a negative list of banned substances and a description of various behaviours related ijifr.journal@gmail.com, editors@ijifr.com IJIFR This paper is available online at - ID: IJIFR/V1/E4/030

2 to them. The WADA formulated eight anti-doping rules (WADA 2009). The manipulation of doping controls presents an offense against the anti-doping rules, as does any attempt to give an athlete forbidden substance or to try out forbidden methods on him or her (i.e., third-party involvement). The WADA annually specifies which substances and methods are forbidden in the respective year. Doping represents the abuse of performance enhancing substances and methods and includes all related actions. This recent doping definition is more comprehensive than all previous ones. Additionally, this definition includes the possible involvement of third parties, who could also be responsible for doping. For prevention purposes it seems less promising when the behaviour is linked only to certain substances and methods. So perhaps we must broaden our view to the individual s thinking about doping and doping behaviour. In our view, in order to early recognize and prevent endangerment, psychological aspects, such as doping-related cognitions and decision-making (i.e., behaviour regulation) need to be focused on. Doping control raises many emotive issues, upon which there will inevitably be diverse views. What must surely be common ground is that any set of doping control rules has to be built on sound foundations. In particular, the rules need to recognise the principles of natural justice (of which more later) and, in addition, the procedures must be such as to produce fair and consistent outcomes. This paper deliberates a new tactic to doping prevention for young athletes and a way to improve conventional doping prevention by focusing on the process of decision-making. The article argues that ethical decision-making programs based on ethical training programs developed in business offer a large potential for prevention programs in sport 2 Anti-Doping Organisations USADA - United States Anti-Doping Agency "The U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) is the national anti-doping organization for the Olympic movement in the United States. The U.S. Congress recognized USADA as "the official anti-doping agency for Olympic, Pan American and Paralympic sport in the United States." We are dedicated to eliminating the practice of doping in sport, and to preserving the well-being of sport and ensuring the health of athletes through research initiatives and educational programs." (Taken from USADA website: World Anti-Doping Agency "The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is the international independent organization created in 1999 to promote, coordinate, and monitor the fight against doping in sport in all its forms. Composed and funded equally by the sports movement and governments of the world, WADA coordinated the development and implementation of the World Anti-Doping Code (Code), the document harmonizing anti-doping policies in all sports and all countries." (Taken from WADA website: International Association of Athletics Federation "The International Athletic Foundation s (IAAF) primary mission is to charitably assist the world governing body for track and field athletics - the International Association of Athletics Federations and its affiliated national governing bodies in perpetuating the development and promotion of athletics world-wide. Through its support of a variety of programmes and projects including educational, scientific, technical, promotional and social activities, the Foundation strives to aid athletes, administrators, coaches, national athletics federations and others to practice all forms of 69

3 thletics in the best of conditions."(taken from IAAF website: 3 Doping in Sports Fear the Health Effects. It is important to clarify what is meant by the use of doping in sport. Admittedly a vague term, doping in this context may refer to any substances or method currently banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Some of the more familiar types of performance enhancing substances include anabolic steroids, used in physically demanding sports, like body building, baseball, and football, as well as erythropoietin (EPO) usually associated with endurance sports such as cycling and distance running. Taking these substances, a practice commonly referred to as doping, produces physiological changes in the athlete to produce improved performance. Other possible, albeit currently hypothetical uses of biotechnology include genetic manipulation of embryos to enhance certain characteristics in that embryo such as the potential for size or speed with the purpose of creating a superior athlete. The scope of the doping problem continues to shift and expand as new compounds, chemical and pharmacological classes, and methods of doping are embraced by succeeding generations of athletes, coaches, and unscrupulous chemists. As a result, anti-doping analytical laboratories have evolved continuously to face these new challenges. The determination as to whether a substance or method is banned, or whether it is to be sought either in-competition or both in- and out-of-competition, or neither, may be updated from year to year, depending on current scientific knowledge and an evaluation of the extent to which a substance is being abused. Hence, it is essential that sports physicians, athletes, coaches, and sports administrators regularly apprise themselves of the contents of the WADA Code and List of Prohibited Substances and Methods, which is revised and published at least annually. According to the Anti-Doping Agency s definition, you are not doping if you are taking harmful drugs which do not enhance performance or violate the spirit of sport and you are not doping if you take performance-enhancing drugs which do not harm you or violate the spirit of sport. (See Table 1 & Table 2) Table 1: Examples of prohibited performance enhancers for which athletes have been banned 70

4 SUBSTANCES Stimulants Narcotics Anabolic agents Diuretics Human growth hormone (hgh) Erythropoietin Table 2: Substances Which Crested Risk to Health SIGNS OF USE / RISKS TO HEALTH Nervous agitation, aggression, insomnia, loss of appetite, weight loss, high blood pressure, irregular heart rate, addiction Nausea, vertigo and loss of coordination, respiratory depression, risk of aggravating injuries, addiction Behaviour disorders, aggression, acne, liver disease, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disorders, tendon ruptures, torn muscles. For women: masculinization, low-pitched voice, excessive facial & body hair, irregular menstrual cycles. For men: baldness, breast growth, testicular atrophy, impotence, infertility, prostate lesions. For adolescents: stunted growth. Dehydration, cramps, kidney disorders, irregular heart rate, low blood pressure, electrolyte imbalance Abnormal organ growth, bone deformations, diabetes, high blood pressure, cardiac and thyroid disorders Blood clots, cardiac disorders, high blood pressure, sudden death (EPO) Blood doping Beta blockers Glucocorticoste- roids Allergic reactions, jaundice, blood clots, transmission of infectious diseases Cardiac arrhythmia, depression, asthma, sexual dysfunction, insomnia High blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia, diabetes, fragile tendons and muscles, risk of aggravating injuries Cannabinoids Forgetfulness, poor coordination, Broncho-pulmonary disorders, compromised antibacterial defences, addiction Alcohol Attention disorders, poor coordination, tachycardia, high blood pressure, addiction However, an additional difficulty resides in the fact that some substances are very often used together with another, main, drug, that some substances of the same nature (but bearing different names) are used together, and that these cocktails undeniably have a positive effect on performance. 71

5 Potentially dangerous drug cocktails: No single drug can satisfy the numerous demands made on athletes to improve performance, stimulate staying power, sustain effort during training, and eliminate stress. For this reason, s/he can be tempted to use drug cocktails, either as "scientific doping" and/or as "easy" doping, the latter being used by athletes with limited financial means. These "cocktails" can be made up of different drugs whose combined effect increases their power, or of similar drugs with different names, which, when taken together, bring the dosage to toxic levels. Among these combinations: amphetamines combined with corticoids, cardio-respiratory analeptics or cocaine, caffeine or ephedrine; EPO with aspirin and/or an anticoagulant, or natural or synthetic glucocorticoids; to recover strength, a combination of glucose-enriched serum added to insulin, IGF1, and as a supplement, androgens, GH, beta 2-agonists. The list of possible combinations is much longer, since cocktails are elaborated and adapted according to need. Pharmacodependency: Several doping substances used by athletes are considered by psychiatrists as addictive, leading to drug abuse and dependence, and their psychological effects and impact on behaviour have been described in the context of the study of dysfunctions linked to drug use (cf. DSM-IV, American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Caffeine intoxication can lead to nervousness, overexcitement, insomnia, or attacks of anxiety in certain persons. Cocaine or amphetamine intoxication can cause hyperactivity, anxiety, stereotyped and repetitive behaviour, anger and violent behaviour, altered judgement. Their chronic use can cause dulled emotions, fatigue, sadness, social withdrawal, or, as concerns cocaine, persecution mania and aggressiveness. According to De Mondenard (1991), marijuana, which is used by some athletes either for its disputed stimulating effect or for the feeling of calm it provides before an event, can sometimes cause anxiety, dysphonia and social withdrawal. Clinical and biological signs indicating an iatrogenic disease: Drug abuse can lead to the development of iatrogenic diseases which must be diagnosed early and with precision. The drugs used generally in combination and at high dosages provoke changes in the person taking them, modifies in his/her homeostasis, behaviour, and morphology. As a result, a clinical and biological semiology of doping with a diagnostic tree should urgently be drawn up as a diagnostic tool for physicians. Such a mediatized approach to doping could lead to further investigation of the problem by specialists and to the establishment of certificates of inaptitude to sport. This approach is only possible in the framework of a system cantered on the long-term monitoring of athletes, conducted in specialized canters, by teams of clinical specialists in sports medicine and thanks to sophisticated equipment for the evaluation of the athletes' functional ability to sustain effort. This medical/athletic monitoring would be computerized and carried out in close collaboration with the athlete's personal physician. Psychopathological problems: Knowledge about the possible psychological and behavioural effects of drugs on athletes stems exclusively from publications describing isolated cases of pathological reactions to the use of anabolic steroids, and from experimental research carried out on animals, voluntary human subjects, either healthy or taking these drugs for therapeutic reasons, or still, from more or less systematic comparisons conducted within small groups of athletes, both taking and not taking drugs. For example, problems linked to body image occur more frequently than average in body-builders taking anabolic steroids. These subjects often suffer from "reverse anorexia", feelings of dissatisfaction regarding their body, and bulimia. Amateur weight-lifters of the male sex taking 72

6 high doses of anabolic steroids are more aggressive towards objects and verbally aggressive during training. Their periods of waking are longer and they are more irritable, anxious, suspicious and negative. Mood changes are more frequent and personal relationships more difficult when they are "on" drugs than when they are "off", or than in non-users. 4 Why fight against doping? Doping breaks the rules and ethics of sport Rules are an essential part of sports. Every sport has a body of rules that dictate how the game is played (e.g. scoring, equipment, playing field, etc.) and spell out participation criteria (e.g. age, category, weight, etc.). These rules help ensure fairness and safety. For example, a heavyweight boxer or judoka cannot compete against a featherweight opponent, and both teams in a soccer match must have identical goal nets. Doping is primarily a breach of sporting rules and ethics. It is banned because it provides an undue advantage over other competitors. Without rules, there would be no sport! Doping is a breach of contract Taking part in a sport means accepting certain rules, just as signing a contract means accepting its terms. No one is forced to play, but all who do must obey the rules. Doping is a breach of the athlete s contract. Athletes who take drugs betray their commitment to their sport and to other participants. Athletes have responsibilities! Doping is no way to be the best Sport offers challenges, meaning that athletes are able to test their personal boundaries and capacities. Competition is a means of measuring and celebrating human excellence in sport. However, excellence cannot be achieved through illegal means. Winning involves more than simply beating an opponent. The champions who deserve to be admired are those who do not use drugs. Excellence is achieved by winning within the rules! Doping threatens personal development Sport helps foster personal development. It provides learning experiences that teach valuable lessons and help develop values including respect for others and for rules, honesty, teamwork, perseverance and self-esteem that prepare us for life in society. If it is to achieve its educational potential, sport must be played, taught, supervised and encouraged in a true spirit of good sportsmanship. Doping goes against the very values of sport! Doping threatens your health Sport is a way of countering the effects of a sedentary lifestyle and preventing the related diseases. Anti-doping initiatives are intended to protect the health of athletes and preserve the beneficial effects of sport. The dangers associated with the use or abuses of certain doping products are sufficiently well documented to dissuade athletes from trying them. If doping were legal, it would be tantamount to asking athletes to endanger their own health simply to be able to compete on equal terms. Doping is the equivalent of gambling with your health! Doping is a threat to sport In society, sport is a way of achieving personal objectives (e.g. physical fitness, pleasure, personal achievement, etc.) and social objectives (e.g. health, education, etc.) The social contributions of sport justify its existence. The positive role it plays is the reason why so 73

7 many people play sports, why parents encourage their children to take them up, and why governments support sports organizations and promote participation. 5 Forms of doping 5.1 Gene Doping: It is the manipulation of cells or genes to enhance the body s sporting performance. Modifying genes enables faster reaction, increase in physical strength etc. Examples of gene doping are: changing of the cell growth stimulating proteins, proliferating muscle capacity and increasing blood supply in the body. Genes can be injected into muscles to prevent muscle wasting disorder and this camouflages with the other human genes thus making gene doping almost impossible to detect. Gene doping began in the year 2001 when the International Olympic Committee Medical Commission came together to discuss the adverse effects of gene therapy on sports. This action was immediately followed by the World Anti-Doping Agency in Blood Doping: It is the act of increasing the number of red blood cells (haemoglobin) in the body with circulation to enhance the athlete s performance by increasing aerobic capacity. Blood doping detection will be to search for any unnatural huge change of the number of RBCs (RED BLOOD CELLS). A huge change will determine whether blood doping has or has not occurred. Another way is to test the urine and blood of athletes although it may be unreliable as athletes usually deny having doped with blood. 5.3 Diuretics: Diuretics are the only doping substances that cause no increase in performance, but rather a reduction in the performance of the athlete. Examples of prohibited means are acetazolamide, furosemide and mersalyl. Find application diuretics in sports with weight classes such as judo and wrestling, in which the athlete must necessarily keep his weight, as he is otherwise not entitled to start in competitions. Intermediate weighing and competition of athlete s losses refills and is more powerful than its competitors. Also in the equestrian sport this doping agent is used, since the athletes must be extremely easy to achieve good performance. In bodybuilding diuretics usually find their application in order to get rid of the stored in the subcutaneous adipose tissue water because as many muscles of the athletes should be recognizable. Strong diuretics are able to bring in a few hours strong water loss which can cause a reduction in weight from one to three kilograms themselves. Due to the rapid dehydration of the body go many minerals lost. This weakens the performance of the athlete and can lead to muscle spasms lead and kidney damage. 5.4 Anabolic steroids: Greater muscle mass, strength, and power are important characteristics for success in a wide variety of sports such as the weightlifting and other strength sports. It has long been known that the increased production of the steroid testosterone in muscles at puberty is responsible for the rapid anabolic and androgenic effects experienced at that time, including a significant increase in muscle mass and strength. More commonly used steroids have been produced synthetically and have been taken by athletes to achieve greater physical looks and gains than are obtained from training alone. Skeletal muscles are the specific tissues which are influenced by anabolic steroids. It helps in the synthesis of protein in the muscle tissue. It is the production of the protein that allows the skeletal muscle cell to perform its functions, growth and contraction. Uses of these drugs have become common place in professional, international and university level sports. The gains in the muscular 74

8 strength by using anabolic steroid are achieved in conjunction with high protein diet and high intensity exercise. 6 Development of Sports Ethics to prevent doping & Charter of sportsmanship In sports the ethics discourse belongs to the discipline of sports philosophy. Sport ethics sees its most urgent task in presenting problem-focused solutions for the doping discussion. However, a meaningful discussion of ethics in sports can only take place by carefully analysing the term sport. Coaches are also in a position to react to situations in which the rules of ethics are breached, and can also help their athletes develop a critical mind-set that will allow them to make informed choices in difficult situations. In highly competitive circles, many athletes try to find alternative solutions to doping short-cuts that will enable them to reach their peak performance quickly. They sometimes end up believing that success cannot be achieved without artificial aids. Coaches must fight this mentality, which generates the same psychological process that leads to doping. Table 3: Responsibilities of coaches The coach s role and responsibilities Coaches are frontline players in the prevention of doping because of the influence they exercise over their athletes. The World Anti-Doping Code (Code) and the Canadian Anti-Doping Program (CADP) assign certain roles and responsibilities to coaches, based on the contractual ties between sports organizations and the people who take part in their activities. The World Anti-Doping Code (s. 21.2) states that the coach s roles and responsibilities are as follows: to be knowledgeable of and comply with all anti-doping policies and rules adopted pursuant to the Code and which are applicable to them or the Athletes whom they support to cooperate with the Athlete Testing program to use their influence on Athlete values and behaviour to foster anti-doping attitudes Generally speaking, coaches should do the following: promote sportsmanship and related values be familiar with the CADP and the Prohibited List raise athletes awareness of the use of medications, dietary supplements and street drugs be vigilant and intervene whenever they think an athlete may have broken the anti-doping rules In addition, at levels of competition where doping controls are performed, coaches should do the following: Regularly consult the Web site of the CCES for the latest news on antidoping initiatives, the CADP and the Prohibited List convey the latest information to athletes be aware of their own role as representatives of their athletes & be familiar with and inform their athletes about testing procedures give athletes the advice they need to fulfil their obligations, especially if they use medication or dietary supplements Make sure athletes are aware of testing positive on a doping control test 75

9 The realm of sport is closely tied to ethical questions, which is due to the fact that human behaviour is characterized by interaction with other individuals. The quest for performance excellence and advances in the area of sports performance research has always prompted some individual s to seek external or artificial means to enhance their performance. Such behaviour runs contrary to the ethics of both sport and medical science, can be harmful to the athlete s health, and further more constitutes a clear attempt to cheat. After the Olympic Games the problem of sports ethics and norms in competition and high level sports is being discussed. The World Anti-Doping Code encourages the development of a negative attitude towards doping among athletes by entrusting coaches with the job of influencing the athletes values and behaviours. Because they are in close regular contacts with athletes, coaches are the only people who are truly able to educate them on the subject of sport ethics. The international sports movement and the Olympic Movement only have to adhere to their existing principles. If one takes these principles seriously one has to reject very strongly and kind of influence and manipulating the performance of an athletic with drugs. Such a statement is based upon few principles, they are as follows:- To emphasize the proper ideas of sportsmanship, ethical conduct and fair play. Top performance in sports is not only of private but also public, cultural, and social significance. To eliminate all possibilities which tend to destroy the best values of the game? Influencing performance with pharmaceutics and manipulating the athlete with the aim of increasing his capacities violate basic principles of sport without which the sports movement and the Olympic movement couldn t exist in the long run: To stress the values derived from playing the game fairly. Contests should be competitions among individuals and not among nations. Not everything which is prohibited in sports can or must be controlled. Table 3: Charter of good sportsmanship Respect for the rules Good sportsmanship means strictly obeying all the rules and refusing to win by illegal methods or cheating. For officials, it means knowing all the rules and applying them impartially. Respect for the opponent Good sportsmanship means respecting the opponent and recognizing that his or her participation is an essential part of true competition, and reflects our own value. It also means accepting victory with humility and without putting down the opponent. Respect for the official Good sportsmanship means respecting officials and accepting their decisions without questioning their integrity. Officials have a tough role and deserve our respect. Commitment to fair play Good sportsmanship means competing in the spirit of fair play. It means counting on sheer talent and ability to win. A cool head Good sportsmanship means remaining cool and showing selfcontrol at all times. It means refusing to let physical or verbal violence get the better of you. It also means acknowledging the better opponent in defeat. Effort and perseverance Good sportsmanship means giving your all, never letting up and showing a healthy competitive streak. You want to win, but only by respecting the rules, your opponent and yourself. 76

10 Discussion: We therefore find it necessary to include the component of ethical decision-making in the anti-doping prevention. In our opinion, athletes have a clear understanding of permitted and forbidden behaviour in a sports context, even if they are not always wholly knowledgeable about the prohibited substances and methods. Many studies, especially those concerning doping, show that the majority of athletes condemn doping. The stability of such attitudes, however, is strongly determined by the current context making an individual s decision inconsistent. Doping should not be conceptualized as a longplanned decision but one strongly influenced by different personal and situational factors. We argue that it is necessary to take a look at an important influential factor, the ethical and moral decisionmaking ability, and to show how it can be strengthened. The new World Anti-Doping Agency represents the most exciting development for the sporting world and for efforts to protect drug free sport. It is the much needed partnership of governments with sports organisations to achieve more by a co-ordinated approach. The discussions presently are centred on who will pay. There are likely to be more interested parties who could be investing in the health and safety system needed by sport than the governing bodies and governments. They would include sponsors, promoters, television companies and, of course, the pharmaceutical industry, from which the doping substances can originate. The athletes would appreciate their contributions to the development of a worldwide antidoping movement. However, if we were serious about eradicating drugs from sport, there are more drastic actions that could be considered. These actions would protect our athletes and their reputations, but is the sporting world really ready to use them? For example: Urine and blood samples should be stored, and then we should await the technology being available to show that an athlete has competed drug free; Athletes could be housed in a sterile environment for six months before a major event and nutrition and training controlled; Athletes could submit their samples daily these samples would be stored and a random selection is tested and validated by DNA analysis. If a drug is detected, the preceding samples could be submitted to determine how long the substance had been present; Athletes who had been denied a medal or a place in a competition because of another athlete using drugs could be legally aided to challenge that athlete and claim loss of earnings, reputation and opportunity provided that they also would produce the evidence that they competed drug free; Lottery funding should not be available to athletes who have been found to have committed a doping offence. Conclusion In a nutshell, doping is harmful be it to the human body or to our personal reputation. It can seriously harm the body in many unexpected ways and it can also input male features into females and vice versa. In the context of our own personal reputation, we will also lose the trust of the people who believe in us and most importantly, the society. All these effects will adversely affect us in one way or 77

11 another and it is best to stay away from them by controlling ourselves from taking drugs in a sports event despite of the immeasurable thirst for victory. It is not, however, possible to find a solution to the doping problem until one exactly defines the problem. Inherent in the finding of a solution to any problem is the accurate identification of the problem itself. Doping is no exception. However, justifying the doping regulations on the basis that they protect competitors from harm, or that they uphold a form of equality of opportunity, is difficult. The enforcement of sports- ethical problem is a difficult task. It will only succeed if these principles are respect and adhered to by all or most of the national and international assignments, by all officials, coaches, physicians, and athletes. References [1] USADA Authorities, (2001). Who we are. Retrieved April 1, 2009, from USADA - Who We Are Web site: [2] WADA Authorities, (1999). Mission & Priorities. Retrieved April 1, 2009, from World Anti-Doping Agency Web site: [3] Sparre, Kirsten (2008). Doping harms the children of athletes. Retrieved April 2, 2009, from playthegame Web site: playthegamemagazine07pg3.pdf [4] Benzi G.: Is there a rationale for the use of creatine either as nutritional supplementation or drug administration in humans participating in sport? Pharmacol Res. 2000; 41: [5] Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ (Editors): Psychopharmacology. Raven Press Bryden AAG, Rothwell PJN, O Reilly PH: Anabolic steroid abuse and renal cell carcinoma. Lancet. 1995; 346: [6] BBC Sport. Conte labels Olympics 'a fraud', 6 May (2008). Available: Accessed 27th Sep [7] Bidlingmaier, M., Wu, Z., & Strasburger, C., (2000) Test method: GH, Baillieare's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 14, (1): [8] At September 29th To minimize often declared draconian approach in WADA system, WADA offers also Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUE), so athletes may in advance request this exemption if in the medicine they use is a substance which is in the Prohibited list of banned substances.for conditions to obtain TUE see [9] Background of Explanatory Report to the Anti-Doping Convention of Council of Europe, available at See also SIEKMANN, R., SOEK, J. (ed.). The Council of Europe and Sport, Basic Documents, The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, p [10] Petroczi, A. & Aidman E. V. (2008) Psychological drivers in doping: the life-cycle model of performance enhancement. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention,and Policy. [11] Petroczi, A., Aidman, E.V. & Nepusz, T. (2008) Capturing doping attitudes by selfreport declarations and implicit assessment: A methodology study. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. Downloaded 5 November 2009 from 78