The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species

Transcription

1 FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER ISSN The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 495

2 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER 495 by Jean-Jacques Maguire Michael Sissenwine Jorge Csirke Richard Grainger FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2006

3 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 92-5-xxxxxxx All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Publishing Management Service Information Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy or by to: FAO 2006

4 iii PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT This document has been prepared under the direct guidance of the Marine Resources Service, Fishery Resources Division, FAO Fisheries Department, as part of its regular programme activities and a partial fulfilment of the Organization s role with regards to the monitoring and reporting on global marine fishery resources and relevant environmental and ecological changes. The main objective of this review is to provide the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and more generally, policy-makers, civil society and those who derive their livelihood from fisheries and/or have a direct interest in the conservation and management of world fishery resources with a comprehensive, objective and global review of the state of the world highly migratory fish stocks, straddling fish stocks, other high seas fish stocks and stocks of associated species considered in relation to the 1995 United Nations Fish Stock Agreement. This document is based on an expanded and updated version of a technical document provided in November 2005 to the UN Division of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (DOALOS) as one of FAO s contribution to the preparation of the report of the UN Secretary General to be submitted to the Review Conference on the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, New York, May 2006, in accordance with paragraph 17 of General Assembly resolution 59/25, to assist the Review Conference to implement its mandate under paragraph 2, article 36 of the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (United Nations General Assembly document A/Conf.210/2006/1). This document is also intended to supplement the information contained in the report to the abovementioned Review Conference. Main sections of this document have been drafted and edited by J.J. Maguire and M. Sissenwine (FAO Consultants), and by J. Csirke and R. Grainger of the FAO Fisheries Department, with contributions from a number of FAO colleagues and collaborators, including K. Cochrane, L. Garibaldi, S. Garcia, J. Lleonart, J. Majkowski, J.F. Pulvenis, R. Shotton and M. Tandstad. F. Carocci and M. Lamboeuf assisted with the processing of tables, maps and figures, R. Sola assisted with the typing and formatting and E. d Antoni illustrated the cover page and some inside drawings. The production of this document was funded through the FAO/FIR regular programme, with extra-budgetary contributions through FishCode and from DOALOS.

5 iv ABSTRACT This document describes highly migratory fish species, straddling fish stocks, and other high seas fish stocks and the fisheries for them, including information on their state of exploitation. About 200 species have been identified as being fished on the high seas either as highly migratory species, straddling fish stocks or other high seas fish stocks and this paper reports on 226 species (or species group) statistical area combinations. Fisheries for highly migratory species are important in all oceans and semi-enclosed seas, except for polar regions. Fisheries for straddling fish stocks are much more localized, primarily occurring in a few regions where continental shelves extend beyond the 200 miles Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) limit or where the high productivity of the coastal area favour a more expanded distribution of coastal stocks into the high seas, or attracts high seas resources into the EEZ. Most fisheries for other high seas fish stocks are deep water fisheries (being conducted at depths of the order of m, or more). About 30 percent of the highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species, more than 50 percent of the highly migratory oceanic sharks, and nearly two-thirds of the straddling stocks (including other high seas stocks) are considered overexploited or depleted. While it is important to manage these fisheries responsibly, it is also appropriate to put them in perspective: most fishing occurs within EEZs, and fisheries for other high seas fish stocks, for which there is concern about the adequacy of governance instruments, account for a small fraction of the total catch. Legitimate concerns about other high seas fish stocks should not divert efforts to apply the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries to EEZ fish stocks and fisheries that need urgent attention, particularly small-scale coastal fisheries upon which millions of people are critically dependent. The adoption of the UN Fish Stock Agreement (FSA) in 1995 and its entering into force in 2001 has led to the implementation of measures that are expected to be beneficial in the medium to long term to species fished on the high seas. The scarcity of the information available and the short time elapsed since the entering into force of the FSA does not allow for a realistic assessment of the impact the FSA may have had on the state of the various fish stocks being exploited in the high seas. The slow recovery of several straddling fish stocks in the northwest Atlantic after more than 10 years of very stringent fishery limitations illustrates the intergenerational nature of the rebuilding process and the potential importance of ecosystem changes. While the performance of the agreement cannot yet be evaluated directly from the response of fisheries and fishery resources, it is useful to consider progress relative to some key issues upon which the success of the FSA is predicated. In particular, information on fisheries and fishery resources needs to improve, the precautionary approach needs to be applied, fishing capacity needs to be matched to productivity of fishery resources, and fisheries management needs to evolve to an ecosystem approach. Another issue is the applicability of the FSA to fisheries for other high seas fish stocks. While this document makes no comment on this issue, it does discuss some options to improve governance of these fisheries in areas where it is deemed to be inadequate. Finally, all those involved with fisheries need to recognize that deteriorating public opinion about fisheries is a threat even to well manged fisheries. This problem is addressed in the document s concluding remarks. Maguire, J.-J., Sissenwine, M., Csirke, J. & Grainger, R. The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No Rome: FAO pp.

6 v CONTENTS PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT...iii 1. INTRODUCTION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Species and stock terminology Approach including data issues HIGHLY MIGRATORY SPECIES Tuna and tuna-like species The resources The fisheries State of the stocks Oceanic sharks Bluntnose sixgill shark Basking shark Thresher sharks (family Alopiidae) Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) Requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae) Hammerhead, bonnethead and scoophead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) Mackerel sharks The fisheries State of the stocks Other highly migratory species Pomfrets Sauries Dolphinfish State of the stocks SELECTED STRADDLING FISH STOCKS Pacific Ocean Northwest Pacific Northeast Pacific Western Central Pacific Eastern Central Pacific Southwest Pacific Southeast Pacific Atlantic Ocean Northwest Atlantic Northeast Atlantic Eastern Central Atlantic Western Central Atlantic Southwest Atlantic Southeast Atlantic Indian Ocean Southern Ocean Mediterranean Sea State of the stocks OTHER HIGH SEAS FISH STOCKS Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) Oreo dories (Allocyttus spp., Neocyttus spp. and Pseudocyttus spp.) Alfonsino (Beryx splendens) Toothfishes (Dissostichus spp.) Pelagic armourhead (Pseudopentaceros wheeleri and P. richardsoni)...46 Page

7 5.6 Hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) Other species State of the stocks ASSOCIATED SPECIES Discards Physical contact by fishing gear with organisms that are not caught and indirect processes STRADDLING FISH STOCKS, HIGHLY MIGRATORY FISH STOCKS AND OTHER HIGH SEAS FISH STOCKS FOR WHICH NO MEASURES HAVE BEEN ADOPTED BY REGIONAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS OR ARRANGEMENTS STATE OF FISHERIES FOR OCEANIC SPECIES BASED ON AN HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF CATCH TRENDS DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS State of the stocks Issues to consider in evaluating the performance of the Fish Stocks Agreement Improving information on fisheries and fishery resources Applying the precautionary approach Matching fishing capacity to fishery resources Implementing an ecosystem approach Concluding remarks REFERENCES...64 vi

8 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Types of highly migratory, straddling and other high seas stocks. Top panel: 1. Highly migratory; 2. Straddling stock (extensive distribution); 3. Other high sea stocks (deep sea). Bottom panel: 4. Pelagic straddling stock (mainly EEZ); 5. Demersal straddling stock (mainly EEZ); 6. Straddling stock (trans-boundary); 7. Straddling stock (mostly high seas); 8. Straddling stock (evenly distributed) Figure 2 FAO marine major fishing areas for statistical purposes Figure 3 General geographic distribution (in red = known distribution; pink = uncertain distribution) and main fishing grounds (in green, based on catches, when available) of highly migratory tuna species. Maps modified from Collette and Nauen (1983) with catch data extracted from Carocci and Majkowski (2003) integrated with unpublished data Figure 4 General geographic distribution (in red = known distribution; pink = uncertain distribution) and main fishing grounds (in green, based on catches, when available) of selected highly migratory billfish species. Maps modified from Nakamura (1985) with catch data extracted from Carocci and Majkowski (2003), integrated with unpublished data Figure 5 Proportion of highly migratory tuna and tuna-like catches made outside EEZs by major FAO statistical areas during , for all highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species and all fishing gears Figure 6 Catches of all highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species for all fishing gears, Figure 7 Bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) Figure 8 Geographic distribution of the bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) (from Compagno, 1984a) Figure 9 Basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) Figure 10 Geographic distribution of the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 11 Catches of basking sharks (Cetorhinus maximus) reported to FAO Figure 12 Thresher shark (Alopias pelagicus) Figure 13 Geographic distribution of the pelagic thresher (Alopias pelagicus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 14 Bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus) Figure 15 Geographic distribution of the bigeye thresher (Alopias superciliosus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 16 Thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) Figure 17 Geographic distribution of the thresher (Alopias vulpinus) from Compagno, 2001 Figure 18 Catches of thresher sharks (family Alopiidae) as reported to FAO Figure 19 Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Figure 20 Geographic distribution of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 21 Silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) Figure 22 Blue shark (Prionace glauca) Figure 23 Catches of requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae) as reported to FAO Figure 24 Scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) Figure 25 Catches of hammerhead, bonnethead, or scoophead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) as reported to FAO Figure 26 The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) Figure 27 Geographic distribution of the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 28 Shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) Figure 29 Geographic distribution of the shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 30 Longfin mako shark (Isurus paucus) Figure 31 Geographic distribution of the longfin mako (Isurus paucus) (from Compagno, 2001)

9 viii Figure 32 Salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) Figure 33 Geographic distribution of the salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 34 Porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) Figure 35 Geographic distribution of the porbeagle (Lamna nasus) (from Compagno, 2001) Figure 36 Catches of mackerel sharks (family Lamnidae) as reported to FAO Figure 37 The Atlantic pomfret (Brama brama) Figure 38 Catches of pomfrets and ocean breams as reported to FAO Figure 39 The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) Figure 40 Geographic distribution of the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) (from Eschmeyer, Herald and Hammann, 1983) Figure 41 Catches of sauries as reported to FAO Figure 42 The common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) Figure 43 Geographic distribution of the common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) (modified from Collette, 1999) Figure 44 Catches of dolphinfish as reported to FAO Figure 45 Continental shelf areas within and beyond the 200 nm limit off the coas Figure 46 Catches by species in the Southern Ocean as reported to FAO in percentage cumulative, Figure 47 Catches reported to FAO from the Southern Ocean Figure 48 Orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) Figure 49 Catches of orange roughy as reported to FAO Figure 50 Catches of oreo dories as reported to FAO Figure 51 Catches of alfonsinos as reported to FAO Figure 52 The Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) Figure 53 Catches of toothfish (Antarctic and Patagonian) as reported to FAO Figure 54 Catches of hoki as reported to FAO Figure 55 Total global catches of marine resources categorized as oceanic-epipelagic, Figure 56 Total global catches of marine resources categorized as oceanic-deepwater, Figure 57 Percentage of the world s top oceanic-epipelagic marine fishery resources in various phases of fishery development, Figure 58 Percentage of the world s top oceanic-deepwater marine fishery resources in various phases of fishery development, Figure 59 Summary of the state of exploitation of highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species, highly migratory species of oceanic sharks, and straddling stocks. Other high sea fish stocks are included with straddling stocks since fisheries for these types of stocks cannot be distinguished. State of Exploitation is classified as under-exploited (U), moderately exploited (M), fully exploited(f), over-exploited (O), depleted (D) or recovering (R). Percentages are calculated for stocks for which the state of exploitation can be determined. It is unknown for 73 percent of the stocks considered in this report LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Summary of the state of exploitation of highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species by major ocean area Summary of the state of exploitation of oceanic sharks Summary of the state of exploitation of selected other highly migratory species Summary of the state of exploitation of the main species-area combinations that contain straddling fish stocks Top species in the categories oceanic-epipelagic and oceanic-deepwater which were subjected to cluster analysis

10 ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ACFM AICDP APFIC BRDs CCMALR CCSBT CITES COFI EEZ FADs FIGIS FSA GFCM IATTC ICCAT ICES IOTC IPHC IPOA IUU IWC MHLC MPA MSY NAFO NASCO NEAFC RFMOs SEAFO SIDP SPC UNCED UNCLOS WECAF WTPSO Advisory Committee on Fisheries Management Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission Bycatch Reduction Devices Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora FAO Committee on Fisheries Exclusive Economic Zone Fish-Aggregating Devices Fisheries Global Information System United Nations Fish Stock Agreement General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Indian Ocean Tuna Commission International Pacific Halibut Commission International Plan of Action Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated International Whaling Commission Multilateral High Level Conferences on South Pacific Tuna Fisheries Marine Protected Area Maximum Sustainable Yield Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission Regional Fisheries Management Organizations Southeast Atlantic Fisheries Organization FAO Species Identification and Data Programme Secretariat of the Pacific Community United Nations Conference on Environment and Development The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission World Tuna Purse-Seine Organization

11 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 1 1. INTRODUCTION The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) adopted on 10 December 1982 (United Nations, 1982) and which entered into force on 16 November 1994, established overarching rules governing all uses of the world s oceans and seas and their resources. Of particular relevance to fisheries are their Part V (articles 55 to 75) on the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and Part VII on the High Seas (articles 86 to 120). UNCLOS recognizes the sovereign rights of the coastal States for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing fishery resources in their EEZs, calling upon the coastal State to adopt conservation and management measures to promote the optimum utilization of fishery resources in their EEZs. UNCLOS also recognizes the free access and the freedom of fishing to all States in the high seas, calling upon coastal States and States fishing to cooperate in the conservation and management of fish stocks occurring in the high seas. With respect to exploited stocks or stocks of associated species occurring both within the EEZ and in the area beyond and adjacent to the zone, UNCLOS calls upon the coastal States and States fishing in the high seas to seek to agree upon the measures necessary for the conservation of those stocks in the adjacent high seas area. UNCLOS also calls upon the coastal States and other States fishing highly migratory species to cooperate in ensuring conservation and promoting the optimum utilization of those resources in their whole area of distribution. With respect to stocks occurring entirely in the high seas, all States are called upon to cooperate in the conservation and management of those fishery resources. Fishing in the high seas was not perceived as a major problem requiring priority attention during the negotiating process of UNCLOS. Therefore, with respect to the highly migratory and other fishery resources occurring partly or entirely in the high seas, UNCLOS limited itself to providing general principles for their conservation, optimum utilization and management, calling upon all States to cooperate towards the further development and implementation of these general principles. However, as UNCLOS was being adopted and as more coastal States claimed their rights and jurisdiction over fisheries in their EEZ, large distant water fishing fleets were displaced from some of their traditional coastal fishing grounds and the pressure to fish in the high seas grew rapidly and without much control. Inadequate management and overfishing soon became problems in the high seas, and thus the increased need to control and reduce fishing fleets operating on the high seas as there were indications that excessive fishing was jeopardizing the sustainability of high seas fishery resources, as was highlighted by FAO (1992) in reporting to the Twentieth Session of its Committee on Fisheries (FAO, 1993). Growing concerns of the international community regarding the state of fishery resources being exploited in areas beyond the areas under national jurisdiction was influential in prompting a decision by the United Nations to convene an international Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. An important contribution to the convening of this conference was the Declaration of Cancun, adopted at the International Conference on Responsible Fishing convened by the Government of Mexico in collaboration with FAO in May 1992 (FAO, 1995). The Declaration of Cancun stated that States should cooperate on bilateral, regional and multilateral levels to establish, reinforce and implement effective means and mechanisms to ensure responsible fishing on the high seas, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The Declaration of Cancun was brought to the attention of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro, 3 14 June 1992, were it was agreed that a United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks would be convened with the general mandate of promoting effective implementation of the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. UNCED also recommended that the Conference should identify and assess existing problems related to the conservation and management of such fish stocks, consider means of improving fisheries cooperation among States, and formulate appropriate recommendations. The mandate to convene an international Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in its resolution 47/192 of 22 December 1992.

12 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 2 The first session of the United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks was held in New York, April 1993, and during its Sixth Session on 4 August 1995 the Conference adopted without a vote the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (also known as the 1995 United Nations Fish Stock Agreement, or just as the Fish Stock Agreement (United Nations, 1995)), thus discharging the mandate given by General Assembly resolution 47/192. The United Nations Fish Stock Agreement (FSA) entered into force on 11 December 2001 with expectations that it would become a blueprint for the management of high seas fisheries. Specifically, it addressed management of highly migratory species and straddling fish stocks. Fisheries for other high seas fish stocks, that were not explicitly addressed in the FSA, have emerged in recent years. In order to assist in the overall assessment of fish stock and fisheries in the high seas following the entering into force of the FSA, this document describes highly migratory species, straddling fish stocks, and other high seas fish stocks and the fisheries for them, including information on their state of exploitation. It also considers the effect of fisheries for these resources on associated species and ecosystems. Lastly, it highlights issues that need to be addressed in implementing the FSA and to improve its performance in the future. An earlier and much shorter version of this document was contributed for the preparation of the United Nations General Assembly document A/Conf.210/2006/1, issued for the May 2006 Review Conference of the FSA. About 200 species have been identified as being fished on the high seas either as highly migratory species, straddling fish stocks or other high seas fish stocks. Although there is insufficient scientific information to determine the actual number of stocks involved in these fisheries, 226 species (or species group) statistical area combinations are reported on as stocks in this report. The number of species and stocks are similar since many species occur in multiple stocks, but many stocks are made up of groups of more than one species. As described in other sections of this document the total reported catch in 2004 of highly migratory species is 5.1 million tonnes, and this is dominated by catches of tuna and tuna like species (4.8 million tonnes). The total catch of oceanic epipelagic and deepwater species that form straddling fish stocks and other high seas fish stocks was 5.6 million tonnes in It is noted, however, that an unknown but certainly large proportion of this catch occurs within EEZs and some of it comes from stocks that are entirely within EEZs (therefore, from non straddling and non high seas stocks). Furthermore, some neritic and more coastal species usually entirely within the EEZs may also form straddling stocks and other high seas stocks in those few areas where the continental shelf and slope, or the effect of coastal enrichment processes extend beyond the EEZs. Available data in global databases is insufficient to distinguish catches from straddling stocks from those on other high seas fish stocks or those on entirely EEZ stocks. 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Article 36 of the FSA that entered into force on 11 December 2001 states that four years after the date of entry into force, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall convene a conference with a view to assessing the effectiveness of the Agreement in securing the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks and that this conference shall review and assess the adequacy of the provisions of the Agreement and, if necessary, propose means of strengthening the substance and methods of implementation of those provisions in order to better address any continuing problems in the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. In preparation for the aforementioned review, the Fourth Informal Meeting of the States Parties to the FSA, held at the United Nations, New York, 31 May 3 June 2005, agreed that the review should consider discrete high seas stocks and non-target and associated dependent species in addition to highly migratory species and straddling stocks.

13 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species Species and stock terminology The biological definition of species (as a group of living organisms consisting of individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding) is straightforward and does not pose major problems of nomenclature for fish and for other living organisms exploited by fishing ( species are the fundamental taxonomic units of biological classification). However, the definition of stock varies greatly according to the knowledge and information available as well as the purpose and type(s) of fishery under consideration. Sparre and Venema (1998) provide a detailed description of the stock concept and from the fisheries management point of view, the most suitable definition of stock unit is probably the one provided by Gulland (1969; 1983) who, on operational criteria and practical grounds, proposed that a group of fish can be treated as a unit stock if the results of assessment and other population studies, as well as those of fisheries management measures in which the group of fish is treated as a unit stock do not change significantly from the real situation. Generally speaking, a stock is a subset of a species with similar growth and mortality parameters within a given geographical area and with negligible interbreeding with other stocks of the same species in adjacent areas. In practice, the application of the concept varies considerably depending on the knowledge available and acceptable complexity in management: for salmon, a river may contain several stocks, one for each of the tributaries where spawning occurs, while for swordfish there are two stocks in the Atlantic (north and south) and one in the Mediterranean. In some cases, a stock can include more than one species (e.g. some redfish (Sebastes spp.) stocks in the Northwest Atlantic). With advances in population genetics, it is clear that the stock structure of many species is much more complex than is captured by stock definitions for management purposes. In some cases, stocks are being redefined based on this new information. However, for the purpose of this review, it is only feasible to apply the term stock to species-area combinations with the resolution of statistical areas used for catch reporting to the FAO Statistical Database. In some cases, it is necessary to combine more than one species. This review identifies 200 species as being fished on the high seas either as highly migratory species, straddling fish stocks or other high seas fish stocks. Although there is insufficient scientific information to determine the actual number of stocks involved in these fisheries, 226 species (or species group) statistical area combinations are reported on as stocks. The number of species and stocks are similar since many species occur in multiple stocks, but many stocks are made up of groups of more than one species For the purpose of this review, highly migratory species are the species listed in Annex 1 of UNCLOS. This is a legal definition rather than a scientific definition based on the actual migratory behaviour of the species. Nevertheless, the species listed in Annex 1 are in general capable of migrating relatively long distances, and stocks of these species are likely to occur both within EEZs and on the high seas. Where available, information on individual stocks will be provided. It is noted that whales (i.e. Cetaceans) are included in Annex 1 of UNCLOS as highly migratory species. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has management authority for the harvest of whales. At present there is a moratorium on commercial whaling, although there is some aboriginal subsistence whaling, whaling under scientific permits, and whaling in coastal state waters by countries lodging an objection within IWC. Whaling is not addressed in the FSA and Cetaceans are not considered in this review. UNCLOS does not use the term straddling stocks, but article 63, clause 2 refers to: the same stock or stocks of associated species[which] occur both within the exclusive economic zone and in an area beyond and adjacent to the zone, and this will be taken as a working definition of the concept of straddling stock in this document. The Fish Stock Agreement, while using the term extensively, does not specifically define it although the above definition ( stocks occurring both within and beyond the exclusive economic zone ) is used in explaining the meaning of straddling stocks when using some of the other official languages of the Organization. The concept of straddling fish stock can cover a continuum from most of the fish being inside the areas of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) under national jurisdiction to most of the fish being outside EEZs (the high seas). No minimum portion outside or inside has been defined, but usage seems to indicate that as long as there is some directed fishing effort at catching the stock on either

14 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 4 side of the EEZ line, it is considered to be straddling. For example, the so-called northern cod (NAFO Divisions 2J3KL) was considered a straddling stock even though 95 percent of the biomass was typically within the coastal State s EEZ. Neither the term discrete high seas fish stocks nor the concept behind it are used in UNCLOS although Part VII of the Convention addresses the living resources of the high seas in general. Neither does the term or concept appear in the Fish Stock Agreement, because of the nature and scope of the Agreement as originally conceived and negotiated. FAO (1994) used the term purely high seas stocks for stocks that are not found within EEZs. This review uses the term other high seas stocks to refer to stocks that are not highly migratory or straddling. It is preferred to discrete high seas stocks because the discreteness of such stocks is generally unknown (e.g. fish caught on distinct seamounts hundreds or thousands of kilometres apart may not necessarily belong to discrete/separate biological units). The exploitation of other high seas stocks is relatively recent and less is known about their biology and stock structure than is the case for tunas or tuna-like species, or the more traditional fishery resources on the continental shelves which have been exploited and studied for much longer. Individual aggregations of other high seas stocks may belong to isolated stocks, individual stocks with some mixing with other stocks, or a larger stock occupying an area much larger than that covered by individual aggregations. Individual aggregations may also form a metapopulation (Levins, 1969). The concept of metapopulation implies that some of the aggregations (sinks) may be dependent on other aggregations (sources) for their recruitment and may not be self-sustaining. Fishery management should take account of the stock structure and it would be particularly important to acquire the necessary knowledge before exploitation proceeds too far. The list of other high seas stocks (section 5) used in this review is considered provisional as new resources continue to come under exploitation. Figure 1 illustrates several configurations of highly migratory fish stocks, straddling fish stocks and other high sea stocks. The straddling stocks show the most varied possibilities: they can be found mostly inside one EEZ, mostly on the high seas, evenly distributed between EEZs and the high seas, straddling stocks can also be transboundary. Associated and dependent species are caught and/or impacted in fisheries for straddling fish stocks, highly migratory fish stocks, and other high seas fish stocks. Since any landed catch that is not from a straddling fish stock or highly migratory fish stock, may be regarded as from other high seas fish stocks, this review considers associated species as impacted species that are not part of the landed catch. This document does not consider EEZ stocks (those found either entirely within one country s EEZ or stocks occurring within the exclusive economic zones of two or more coastal States, but not on the high seas) or the sedentary species of the continental shelf in the sense described in Article 77 of UNCLOS, regarding living organisms belonging to sedentary species, that is to say, organisms which, at the harvestable stage, either are immobile on or under the seabed or are unable to move except in constant physical contact with the seabed or the subsoil with respect to continental shelf resources, and are subject to the jurisdiction of coastal nations.

15 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 5 FIGURE 1 Types of highly migratory, straddling and other high seas stocks. Top panel: 1. Highly migratory; 2. Straddling stock (extensive distribution); 3. Other high sea stocks (deep sea). Bottom panel: 4. Pelagic straddling stock (mainly EEZ); 5. Demersal straddling stock (mainly EEZ); 6. Straddling stock (trans-boundary); 7. Straddling stock (mostly high seas); 8. Straddling stock (evenly distributed)

16 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species Approach including data isues This review builds on a review of highly migratory fish stocks and straddling fish stocks prepared by FAO (1994) as input to the negotiations for the FSA, and on FAO s (2005a) most recent published review of the state of world marine fisheries. In some cases information from FAO (2005a) was updated based on information provided by Regional Fishery Organizations (further information on Regional Fisheries Organizations can be found in the following FAO web address: and in particular, information received from the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), the Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission, NEAFC), the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). Catch information is from the FAO Fisheries Statistics Database. The most recent complete year of data is 2004 (FAO, 2006a; FAO Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit, in press). At present, there is no global inventory of fish stocks, although one is called for in the Strategy for Improving the Information on the Status and Trends of Capture Fisheries approved by the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) of FAO on 28 February 2003 (FAO, 2003d). FAO is developing a Fisheries Global Information System (FIGIS) (FAO, 2006b), which will fulfil this need, but unfortunately, it is only sparsely populated with stock information at this stage of development. The available FAO global fisheries statistics database is by country, species and major FAO fishing areas for statistical purposes (Figure 2). These statistical areas are generally too coarse to correspond to stocks, except for tunas where catches by stocks are included in the FIGIS database, and the data available at present does not distinguish EEZ catches from catches on the high seas. Therefore, it is necessary to make informed judgements for each FAO statistical area about which species are fished partially or entirely on the high seas. FIGURE 2 FAO marine major fishing areas for statistical purposes For the purpose of describing their state of exploitation, species/stocks were classified according to a classification scheme used previously by FAO as follows: Not known (N): not much information is available to make a judgment; Underexploited (U): undeveloped or new fishery. Believed to have a significant potential for expansion in total production; Moderately exploited (M): exploited with a low fishing effort. Believed to have some limited potential for expansion in total production; Fully exploited (F): the fishery is operating at or close to optimal yield/effort, with no expected room for further expansion; Overexploited (O): the fishery is being exploited above the optimal yield/effort which is believed to be sustainable in the long term, with no potential room for further expansion and a higher risk of stock depletion/collapse;

17 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 7 Depleted (D): catches are well below historical optimal yields, irrespective of the amount of fishing effort exerted; Recovering (R): catches are again increasing after having been depleted or a collapse from a previous high. Although more detailed information is provided within each regional review chapter, in summarizing the state of regional and global fishery resources FAO (2005a) reports on 584 species (or species group) -statistical area combinations, for which the state of 441 (76 percent) is reported known. While these species (or species group) -statistical area combinations are referred to as stocks, in many cases they are a collection of several stocks according to either a management or biological perspective. For example, in summarizing the state of cod in the Northwest Atlantic (FAO statistical area 21) the species statistical area combination is treated as a single entry, although there are 10 separate management units for cod fisheries in the area, and often more than one reproductively isolated breeding populations (i.e. stocks from a biological perspective) probably exists in some of these management units. In spite of these limitations, the state of stocks as reported in FAO (2005a) was used herein as the best available global source of stock state information, with refinements based on more recent information provided by some Regional Fisheries Bodies or fishery specific knowledge of FAO Fisheries Department staff or its consultants. Information on (associated and dependant) species associated with fisheries for highly migratory species, straddling fish stocks and other high seas fish stocks is very limited. Rarely are catches of these species reported. Most are discarded at sea. Some countries collect data on discards, but the information is incomplete and it is not routinely reported to FAO. However, FAO recently published an update of information on fishery discards (Kelleher, 2005) which provides useful information on associated species. The status of some of the species is known from various sources (for example, some sea turtle populations are in danger of extinction while others are giving signs of recovery), but almost nothing is known about the status of others. Thus, this review highlights known and potential issues concerning associated species, but a comprehensive assessment is not possible. Various FAO information resources were used as sources of information on the biological characteristics and geographical distribution of the species. These include the FAO species catalogues and other information products provided by the FAO Species Identification and Data Programme (SIDP, FIGIS species fact sheets ( and Fishbase ( 3. HIGHLY MIGRATORY SPECIES As indicated above, highly migratory species are legally defined as those listed in Annex 1 of UNCLOS. They include tuna and tuna-like species, oceanic sharks, pomfrets, sauries, and dolfinfish. Some of these species may only occur and/or be caught within EEZs but the available global database does not allow distinguishing between catches made on the high seas and those made within EEZs. Highly migratory species are therefore discussed without regard to stocks or occurrence within EEZs or on the high seas, except for tunas and some tuna like species for which more detailed data are available. 3.1 Tuna and tuna-like species The information presented in this section is based primarily on the recent summary in FAO (2005a) and on the report of the FAO project on Management of tuna fishing capacity: conservation and socio-economics (FAO, 2005b). Information has also been obtained from Regional Fisheries Organizations, either directly or from their published reports and web sites. In particular, updated information has been obtained from the web pages of the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC, and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC, their publications, or through submissions they have made to FAO specifically for the review Conference on the Fish Stock Agreement.

18 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species The resources All tuna and tuna-like highly migratory species (billfishes, bonitos, mackerels and tunas) belong the sub-order Scombroidei. The tunas (Thunnini) include the most economically important species referred to as principal market tunas because of their global economic importance and their intensive international trade for canning and sashimi. Tunas are sub-classified into four genera (Thunnus, Katsuwonus, Euthynnus and Auxis) with fourteen species all together. The tunas included in Annex 1 of UNCLOS are in the order they are listed: Albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga), which occurs in tropical and temperate waters worldwide. Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), mostly found in temperate waters of the Atlantic, including the Mediterranean, and Pacific Oceans. It is noted that since the drafting of UNCLOS, bluefin tuna in the northern Pacific has been identified as a different species, Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) while bluefin in the Atlantic has been re-named Atlantic bluefin tuna. Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus), found in the Atlantic (but absent from the Mediterranean), Indian and Pacific Oceans. Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) with a worldwide distribution in tropical and temperate waters. Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), also with a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical more temperate seas, but absent from the Mediterranean. Blackfin tuna (Thunnus atlanticus) found in the western Atlantic in tropical and warm seas. Little tuna (Euthynnus alleteratus and E. affinis), with E. alleteratus found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, including the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and E. affinis in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is noted that presently, E. alleteratus is called little tunny and E. affinis is called kawakawa. Southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii), in temperate waters of the southern hemisphere in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Frigate mackerel (Auxis thazard and A. rochei) found in the Atlantic (including the Mediterranean Sea where only A. rochei is found), Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is noted that presently, A. thazard is referred to as frigate tuna and A. rochei as bullet tuna. The above tuna species listed as highly migratory species in Annex 1 of UNCLOS have extensive distribution on the high seas. Although their total catches amount to less than 5 percent of the total world marine fish catches, their landed value has been estimated to account for nearly 20 percent of the global marine total. Tuna species can be loosely categorized into tropical and temperate tunas. They exhibit a wide range of life histories, ranging from the skipjack tuna, which has a short lifespan, high fecundity and wide distribution in tropical and temperate waters, to the bluefin tuna which is long lived, breeds late and has well defined breeding and migration patterns. Differing life histories result in contrasts in vulnerability to overfishing. Skipjack are generally considered to be more resilient to exploitation, while bluefin are considered more vulnerable, all the more because of their extremely high market value. The other species have life history characteristic that are intermediate between those two extremes. The tuna like species included in Annex 1 of UNCLOS also have an extensive geographical distribution. These are: Marlins, of which there are eight species (Tetrapturus angustirostris, T. belone, T. pfluegeri, T. albidus, T. audax, T. georgei, Makaira indica, M. nigricans ), with one or more species found in every Ocean. It is noted that presently, species of the genus Tetrapturus are referred to as spearfishes. It is also noted that the blue marlin species (Makaira nigricans and M. mazara) have been recently consolidated in one single species named Makaira nigricans (Buonaccorsi et al., 1999; Graves and McDowell, 1995). Changes have been already implemented in FAO Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System (ASFIS) and accepted by IATTC, SPC and EUROSTAT (L. Garibaldi, personal communication, 2006). Sailfishes, with two species (Istiophorus platypterus and I. albicans). I. platypterus was formerly restricted to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but is now found in the Mediterranean Sea where it entered via the Suez Canal. I. albicans is found in the Atlantic Ocean and migrates into the Mediterranean Sea.

19 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 9 Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Little tunny (E. alleteratus) and kawakawa (E. affinis), and to some extent, blackfin tuna (T. atlanticus), black skipjack (E. lineatus), bullet tuna (A. rochei) and frigate tuna (A. thazard), are less oceanic and more associated with the continental shelves than the other tunas and tuna-like species in Annex 1 of UNCLOS. The general distribution and the location of the main fishing grounds of all the highly migratory tuna and of the main tuna-like species mentioned above are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The longtail tuna (T. tonggol) is also an important tuna, not included in UNCLOS Annex 1, which has a wide but less oceanic distribution associated with the continental shelves. Other important tuna-like species not in Annex 1 of UNCLOS include slender tuna (Allothunnus fallai), butterfly kingfish (Gasterochisma melampus), wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), bonitos (Cybiosarda, Orcynopsis and Sarda), and species of the genus Scomberomorus (Spanish mackerel, king mackerels, seerfish and sierra). Slender tuna and butterfly kingfish (with a circumpolar distribution in the Southern Ocean) are now caught mostly as bycatch of the longline fishery targeting southern bluefin tuna. In line with the definitions in UNCLOS and FSA, these species are therefore to be considered as straddling stocks or as other high seas stock if/when occurring only in the high seas. FIGURE 3 General geographic distribution (in red = known distribution; pink = uncertain distribution) and main fishing grounds (in green, based on catches, when available) of highly migratory tuna species. Maps modified from Collette and Nauen (1983) with catch data extracted from Carocci and Majkowski (2003) integrated with unpublished data Albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) Skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)

20 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 10 Blackfin tuna (Thunnus altanticus) Little tunny (Euthynnus alleteratus) Kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis) Southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) Frigate and Bullet tunas (Auxis thazard, A. rochei)

21 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 11 FIGURE 4 General geographic distribution (in red = known distribution; pink = uncertain distribution) and main fishing grounds (in green, based on catches, when available) of selected highly migratory billfish species. Maps modified from Nakamura (1985) with catch data extracted from Carocci and Majkowski (2003), integrated with unpublished data Black marlin (Makaira indica) Blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) Atlantic white marlin (Tetrapturus albidus) Striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) Atlantic sailfish (Istiophorus albicans) Indo-Pacfic sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) Swordfish (Xiphias gladius)

22 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species The fisheries Tuna fisheries are among the oldest fisheries in the world (FAO, 2005b) with Phoenician trap fisheries (Ravier and Fromentin, 2001) for bluefin tuna occurring around 2000 BC. They are mentioned by Aristotle, Oppian and Pliny the Elder, and they are also recorded in excavations at prehistoric sites. Until the second part of the twentieth century, fishing occurred mostly in coastal areas. As a result of increasing demand for tuna for canning, industrial fisheries began during the 1940s and 1950s. During the 1950s, the major industrial fisheries were the Japanese longline fishery and the pole-and-line fisheries of the United States of America and Japan, which operated in the Pacific Ocean. The longline fishery reached the Atlantic Ocean during the late 1950s. Also, some European pole-and-line vessels, based in local ports, began fishing off the west coast of Africa at that time. During the 1960s, European pole-and-line and purse-seine vessels began fishing for tunas in tropical areas off West Africa. Japanese pole-and-line vessels increased and expanded their area of operation in the western and central Pacific. Japanese longliners also expanded their fishing operations all over the world, targeting mostly albacore and yellowfin for canning. During the mid- 1960s, vessels of the Republic of Korea and Taiwan Province of China became involved in largescale longline fishing for tunas. At the end of the decade, improvements in freezing technology and cold storage systems developed for Japanese longliners, made it possible to produce fish that was acceptable for the sashimi market, which, in turn, led the vessels to shift their target species from yellowfin and albacore for canning to bluefin and bigeye for sashimi. In the eastern Pacific Ocean, the pole-and-line vessels of the United States of America were almost completely replaced by purse-seine vessels. Quotas for yellowfin in that region were first established in During the 1970s the European purse-seine fishery in the tropical eastern Atlantic developed quickly while the United States of America purse-seine fishery of the tropical eastern Pacific expanded offshore. In the tropical eastern Pacific a number of vessels of the United States of America either changed flags to Central and South American countries to avoid the national regulations aimed at reducing the incidental mortality of dolphins or shifted their fishing effort to the western and central Pacific Ocean, where the association of yellowfin with dolphins was not important. A purse-seine fishery for tunas began in the western Indian Ocean during the 1980s, when European vessels, which had fished in the Atlantic Ocean until then, moved to that area. In the Pacific Ocean the purse-seine fishery further expanded its fishing area, particularly in the western and central Pacific Ocean. In the Atlantic, countries such as Brazil and Venezuela entered the purse-seine fisheries. During the same period, the numbers of Japanese and Korean large-scale longliners began to decrease, whereas the fleet of Taiwan Province of China, and the numbers of vessels reflagged to countries of open registry increased rapidly. Purse seiners began fishing with artificial fish-aggregating devices (FADs) in the Atlantic Ocean early in the 1990s, and the method quickly spread to the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Fisheries management became more active and intensified during the 1990s and continues to be more active in response to stock concerns and increasing focus on illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. The catch by small-scale coastal longline fisheries increased greatly during the 1990s. Another important event was the development of bluefin tuna farming which can have a significant effect in increasing fishing pressure on the wild stocks, particularly by targetting on young individuals. Tuna are fished, traded, processed and consumed globally. The industrial fleets often transfer their operations from one ocean to another in response to changing conditions either in fish availability, markets, and/or fishing regulations, which makes it difficult to manage fishing capacity solely on a regional scale. In addition, the fish caught are frequently transported to other parts of the world for processing. Also, substantial IUU fishing, which occurs in all oceans in spite of recent efforts to control it, significantly complicates the management of the fisheries for tunas. In 2004, tuna and tuna-like species classified as highly migratory in Annex 1 of UNCLOS accounted for 4.8 million tonnes, nearly 80 percent of the total reported catches of all tunas and tunalike species. Two species, skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna accounted for nearly 60 percent of the catch (3.5 million tonnes) in that year. Not all the catches are from the high seas however, and the portion caught outside EEZ s varies from about 4 percent in the Western Central Pacific to almost 80

23 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 13 percent in the Eastern Indian Ocean (Figures 5 and 6). In the Mediterranean, because countries have generally not declared EEZ s, 100 percent of the catches are considered to be taken outside EEZ s.. FIGURE 5 Proportion of highly migratory tuna and tuna-like catches made outside EEZs by major FAO statistical areas during , for all highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species and all fishing gears Pacific Southeast Pacific Southwest Pacific Eastern Central Pacific Western Central Pacific Northeast Pacific Northwest Indian East Indian West Atlantic Southeast Atlantic Southwest M editerranean Atlantic Eastern Central Atlantic Western Central Atlantic Northeast Atlantic Northwest FAO areas Tuna catches (sum of 2000 to 2004 all species) 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Percentage outside EEZ FIGURE 6 Catches of all highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species for all fishing gears,

24 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species State of the stocks This section classifies the state of exploitation of stocks of tuna and tuna-like species according to the FAO classification scheme described in section 2.2 and their state of exploitation of this species group, based on the most recent information available, is summarized in Table 1. The main sources of information are the recent FAO summaries (FAO, 2005a; 2005b). Additional information was obtained from the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), the Inter- American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). Most highly migratory tropical tunas have very high fecundity, wide geographic distribution, opportunistic behaviour and other characteristics that make them highly productive and resilient to exploitation. With proper management, they are capable of sustaining high yields, but possibilities of overexploitation and stock depletion nevertheless exist if fishery management is not adequate. Highly migratory temperate tunas have life history characteristics that make them much more sensitive to exploitation. As a result, their expected yields are lower and the risks of overexploitation are higher making it all the more important to exercise prudent management. TABLE 1 Summary of the state of exploitation of highly migratory tuna and tuna-like species by major ocean area Species/stocks Major Ocean Catch (thousands of tonnes) 1 State of area exploitation 5 Albacore Northern Pacific (T. alalunga) Ocean n.a. F Southern Pacifc Ocean n.a. F Mediterranean Sea n.a. N Northern Atlantic Ocean n.a. O South Atlantic Ocean n.a. F Indian Ocean n.a. M Total Bigeye tuna (T. obesus) Pacific bluefin tuna (T. orientalis) Atlantic bluefin tuna (T. thynnus) Southern bluefin tuna (T. maccoyii) Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. O Western and Central Pacific n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. F Ocean Atlantic Ocean n.a. F Indian Ocean n.a. F Total Pacific Ocean F East Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea n.a. O West Atlantic Ocean n.a. D Total Southern Oceans D

25 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 15 Species/stocks Sailfish and spearfish 2,3 Skipjack tuna (K. pelamis) Small tuna 2, 4 Yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) State of Major Ocean Catch (thousands of tonnes) 1 area exploitation 5 East Atlantic Ocean N West Atlantic Ocean N Total Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. M Western Pacific Ocean n.a. M East Atlantic Ocean n.a. N West Atlantic Ocean n.a. N Indian Ocean n.a. M-F Total Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea N Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. F Western Pacific Ocean n.a. N Atlantic Ocean n.a. F Indian Ocean M-F Total Black marlin (M. indica) 2 Pacific Ocean N Blue marlin (M. nigricans) 1 Pacific Ocean F Atlantic Ocean O Total Striped marlin (T. audax) Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. M Western Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. N Total Atlantic white marlin Atlantic Ocean 1 <1 1 1 n.a. O (T. albidus) 2 Sailfish (I. platypterus) Spearfish shortbill (T. angustirostris) Swordfish (X. gladius) 2 Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. N Western Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. N Total Eastern Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. N Western Pacific Ocean n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. N Total 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 Northeastern Pacific Ocean <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 M Northwestern Pacific Ocean N Southeastern Pacific Ocean F

26 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 16 Species/stocks State of Major Ocean Catch (thousands of tonnes) 1 area exploitation 5 Southwestern Pacific Ocean N Western Central Pacific Ocean N Mediterranean Sea N North Atlantic Ocean F South Atlantic Ocean F Total * 1 Catch data by stock area from Carocci and Majkowski (2005), unless otherwise stated 2 Catch data from FAO Fishstat 3 Include Atlantic sailfish (I. albicans) and longbill spearfish (T. pluefgeri) 4 Include Frigate tuna (A. thazard), bullet tuna (A. rochei), kawakawa (E.affinins), little tunny (E. alleteratus) black skipjack (E. lineatus) and blackfin tuna (T. Atlanticus) 5 Symbols: N = Not known; U = Underexploited; M = Moderately exploited; F = Fully exploited; O = Overexploited; D = Depleted; R = Recovering Bluefin tuna, a temperate species most desired for sashimi, is depleted in the western Atlantic, as is southern bluefin tuna, and it is overexploited in the eastern Atlantic. The Pacific bluefin is fully exploited. Albacore, another temperate species, is used mostly for canning. The stocks are fully exploited in the South Atlantic as well as in the North and South Pacific and overexploited in the North Atlantic. Albacore is probably moderately exploited in the Indian Ocean while the state of exploitation in the Mediterranean Sea is not known. Although bigeye tuna, another species highly desired for sashimi, is tropical and has a life span shorter than bluefin, there is increasing concern that its exploitation may be too high. In addition to being overexploited, there is concern that increasing purse seine catches of small bigeye associated with FADs may negatively affect the longline catches of large bigeye, which have a much higher price. Bigeye tuna is overexploited in the eastern Pacific and is probably fully exploited elsewhere. The yellowfin tuna stocks are close to or are being fully exploited in all oceans while skipjack tuna is only moderately exploited in the Pacific and probably also in the Indian Ocean. However, with the present fishing technique, catches of skipjack cannot be increased without undesired increases of catches of other species. In the Atlantic, the state of skipjack is uncertain. The state of exploitation of many other tuna and tuna-like species is highly uncertain or unknown. Given the absence of reliable information on the state of exploitation, caution should be exercised in managing these fisheries, and it would not be prudent to allow fisheries to expand in the absence of further studies. Significant uncertainties in the state of exploitation of many billfishes represent a serious concern. In the Atlantic, blue and white marlins seem to be overexploited even though they are not generally targeted. Blue marlin is fully exploited in the eastern Pacific, but striped marlin is only moderately exploited. Because of commercial exploitation, there is more known on the state of swordfish exploitation than for other billfishes. In the Atlantic and the southeastern Pacific, swordfish are fully exploited, and there is concern about the effect of recent increases in fishing effort in the South Pacific. In the northeastern Pacific, swordfish is only moderately exploited. There is also concern about the intensification of fisheries targeting swordfish in the Indian Ocean. In summary, the scientific information available primarily from regional tuna fishery management organizations and other intergovernmental organizations indicates that none of the tuna and tuna like species are considered underexploited. For those stocks/species area combinations in Table 1 where the state of exploitation is known (24 out of 41, or 59 percent), 21 percent are moderately exploited, 50 percent are fully exploited, 21 percent are overexploited and 8 percent (southern bluefin and bluefin in the western Atlantic) are depleted. There are probably few opportunities to increase exploitation of these species, except in some areas of the Pacific, and possibly in the Indian Ocean, where significant increases in catches of skipjack tuna might be

27 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 17 sustainable. However, if current fishing techniques are used, this can only be done at the expense of undesired increases in bycatch of other species, some of which may already be fully exploited or overexploited, and in need of tighter conservation measures. Based on recent reports in the popular media, the state of tuna and tuna like fishery resources might be perceived to be much bleaker than described above. The media attention was generated by presumably authoritative scientific publications and journals. For example, Myers and Worm (2003), examining data mostly from pelagic longline fisheries for highly migratory species, concluded that there had been a 90 percent decline in abundance of these species groups. However, methodological flaws of the studies have been well documented by Walters (2003), Hampton et al. (2005) and others (see for more detailed information). Aside from methodological flaws, it is worth noting that most of the reported declines occurred fifty years ago, when those fisheries started, and before management was instituted. The study also fails to mention that substantial declines (50 percent or more) from the unfished abundance are to be expected even for well managed sustainable fisheries in order to increase the productivity of the resources. The high value of tuna, and the global nature of fleets and markets aggravate the concerns about excess fleet capacity and increased risk of overexploitation and stock depletion. In recent years, the World Tuna Purse-Seine Organization (WTPSO, an industry organization) temporarily limited fishing effort by their vessels in order to decrease the overall supply of fish to increase the price. Also, the number of longline vessels has been reduced in some countries. However, these actions are not regarded as sufficient in the long term to control fishing capacity and exploitation. Most of the regional tuna fishery management organizations are attempting to address the issue of tuna-fishing capacity in their areas of responsibility, in addition to the management of stocks through catch and fishing effort controls. However, the problem of managing tuna-fishing capacity is complex, involving biological, socio-economic and technological issues, whereas the conventions of most, if not all, of the tuna fishery management organizations do not address the social and economic aspects of fishery management. Industrial tuna fleets are highly mobile and the principal market tunas are intensively traded on the global scale. In addition, many tuna research, conservation and management problems are similar in all oceans. Therefore, there is a need for exchange of information and for collaboration on the global scale regarding fisheries, fisheries research and fisheries management for tunas and other species with wide global distribution. 3.2 Oceanic sharks Sharks covered under this heading are those listed in Annex 1 of UNCLOS: Bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus), basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus), thresher sharks (family Alopiidae), whale shark (Rhincodon typus), requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae), hammerhead, bonnethead, or scoophead sharks (family Sphyrnidae), and the mackerel sharks (family Lamnidae) (it is noted that in UNCLOS the family Lamnidae is listed as Isurida, using an old family name). The total reported catches of species and families of sharks, listed in the Annex 1 of UNCLOS, was close to tonnes in The requiem sharks (Carcharinidae) account for 90 percent of these catches. However, the total catch and mortality of sharks (such as discarded bycatch) is likely to be much larger than the reported catch. Unfortunately, the state of many shark populations is unknown, or poorly known. However, the life history characteristics of sharks (e.g. slow growth, long life span, low fecundity) make them particularly vulnerable to overexploitation and depletion and therefore, such sharks should be managed with caution. Due to the nature of the available information, this section dealing with oceanic sharks provides descriptions of resources, fisheries and their state of exploitation on a species by species, as well covering fisheries and state of exploitation separately. An FAO report (Castro, Woodley and Brudek, 1999) prepared in support of the International Plans of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks, FAO catalogues (Compagno, 1984a; 1984b; 2001), other FAO sources, and Fishbase, provided information on the biological characteristics and geographical distribution of oceanic sharks. When available, drawings from the FAO databases and Species Identification Programme have been included in the text. This report intentionally gives greater emphasis to reviewing the biology of

28 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 18 oceanic sharks than for tuna and tuna-like species, because the biology of the latter is more readily available in other reviews Bluntnose sixgill shark Bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) (Figures 7 and 8) has an almost circumglobal distribution in tropical and temperate seas on the continental and insular shelves and upper slopes at depths from surface to at least m, but it is mostly a deepwater shark. It is locally common and taken by line gear, gillnets, traps and pelagic and bottom trawls, for use fresh, frozen, dried salted for human consumption, and for fishmeal and oil. It is also the subject of dive tourism on the Canadian Pacific coast. There are no assessment of the state of the stock(s) or exploitation. Catches have been reported only from the Atlantic Ocean since 2001 (one tonne) with up to 30 tonnes in Basking shark The basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) (Figures 9 and 10), is a coastal-pelagic shark found in boreal to warm temperate waters of the continental and insular shelves, occurring from well offshore to near shore just beyond the surf zone. It occurs around all the continents except Antarctica and the Arctic. Surface basking in this shark is thought to be related to feeding on surface concentrations of food plankton, and courtship and mating, although the species is also known to feed on plankton aggregations in deep waters on the edge of continental shelves. Basking sharks undertake long-distance migrations. The basking shark has been the target of harpoon fisheries from small boats, but it has also been taken in nets, including bottom gillnets and occasionally bottom and pelagic trawls. The species also interacts with other gears, causing gear damage and harming themselves in the process. FIGURE 7 Bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) FIGURE 8 Geographic distribution of the bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) (from Compagno, 1984a) FIGURE 9 Basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) FIGURE 10 Geographic distribution of the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) (from Compagno, 2001) The basking shark has been exploited commercially for centuries in several parts of the world mainly for its liver oil, which was used as lighting fuel for lamps in the past, and during this century as a source of chemical compounds. Several localized basking shark fisheries have shown sharp declines recently and in the past, but it is difficult to separate natural fluctuations in local abundance from the effects of exploitation globally. The basking shark are likely to be extremely vulnerable to overexploitation, perhaps more so than most sharks, and this can be ascribed to its slow growth rate, advanced age of maturity, long gestation period, low fecundity (like all sharks), and probable small size of existing populations. Reported catches in excess of tonnes (Figure 11) were common during 1960 to 1980, but they have been much less since the end of the 1990s. In 2004, 239 tonnes were reported. The species is probably overexploited globally with some areas being depleted.

29 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 19 The basking shark is listed on Annex II to the Protocol Endangered or Threatened Species of the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea and in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It is legally protected by several countries (such as UK, Malta, US Federal waters) and targeting basking sharks is prohibited in New Zealand. FIGURE 11 Catches of basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) reported to FAO Catch (thousand tonnes) Basking shark - Cetorhinus maximus Pacific, Southwest (neglidgible) M editerranean & Black Sea (neglidgible) Atlantic, Northeast Thresher sharks (family Alopiidae) There are three species of thresher sharks (family Alopiidae): Alopias pelagicus, Alopias superciliosus and Alopias vulpinus. All three species are believed to occur in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans. Given their life-history characteristics, FIGURE 12 these species are not expected to have a high Thresher shark (Alopias pelagicus) resilience to exploitation, but stock status remains uncertain. Unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider these species as being fully exploited or overexploited globally. Alopias pelagicus (Figures 12 and 13) was formerly exploited by longline fisheries in the northwestern Indian Ocean, but it is also fished in FIGURE 13 the Central Pacific. It is utilized for its meat (for Geographic distribution of the pelagic thresher human consumption), liver oil for vitamin-a (Alopias pelagicus) (from Compagno, 2001) extraction, hides for leather, and fins for shark-fin soup. Alopias superciliosus (Figures 14 and 15), commonly known as the bigeye thresher shark, has been caught in the oceanic longline fisheries operating in the northwestern Indian Ocean, western and Central Pacific, eastern North Pacific and North Atlantic. This species is also taken as incidental bycatch in fixed bottom and pelagic gill nets and in trawls. FIGURE 14 Bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus) FIGURE 15 Geographic distribution of the bigeye thresher (Alopias superciliosus) (from Compagno, 2001)

30 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 20 Alopias vulpinus (Figures 16 and 17) is frequently caught by offshore longline and pelagic gill net fisheries. It is also fished with anchored bottom and surface gill nets, and it is a bycatch of other gear including bottom trawls and fish traps. The species became the object of an important targeted pelagic gill net fishery off the west coast of the United States of America (particularly California, and also Washington and Oregon) in the late 1970s, with a peak reported catch of tonnes in 1982 (not reported in FAO statistics), declining due to overfishing to less than 300 tonnes by the late 1980s. The targeted fishery was ended by 1990, but the species is still caught as bycatch of the swordfish gill net fishery and may be sold for higher prices in the market than swordfish. Catches of Alopiidae that have been reported to FAO since the early 1980s have generally been less than tonnes (Figure 18) and around tonnes since 1998 (972 tonnes in 2004). Apparently, not all catches are reported to FAO, given the tonnes referred to in the paragraph above. FIGURE 16 Thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) FIGURE 17 Geographic distribution of the thresher (Alopias vulpinus) (from Compagno, 2001) FIGURE 18 Catches of thresher sharks (family Alopiidae) as reported to FAO 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,400 Sharks - Alopiidae Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Catch (tonnes) 1,200 1,

31 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) (Figures 19 and 20) has a circumglobal distribution in tropical and warm temperate seas. It is an epipelagic oceanic and coastal pelagic species ranging from far offshore to close inshore, sometimes entering lagoons of coral atolls. It is generally encountered close to or at the surface, as solitary individuals or in aggregations of up to hundreds of sharks. Whale sharks migrate long distances, with their movements probably timed with plankton blooms and changes in water temperatures. They are often associated with schools of pelagic fish, especially scombrids. Whale sharks have been fished sporadically by some countries around the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans, but no catches are recorded in the FAO fisheries statistics database. Given its life-history characteristics, the whale shark is expected to have low resilience to exploitation, with most recent fisheries having collapsed or ceased due to legal protection, but the state of stocks remains uncertain in most areas. Unless demonstrated otherwise, it is prudent to consider the species as being fully exploited globally. Whale sharks are currently protected in several parts of the world: Western Australia, India, The Maldives, The Philippines, and in parts of the United States of America (Florida state waters and all federal waters of the Gulf of México and Atlantic coast). The whale shark is listed on Appendix II of both the Convention on Migratory Species and CITES Requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae) Requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae), have a worldwide distribution in tropical and temperate waters. There are 50 species in the family (30 in genus Carcharinus) which is, by far, the most important shark family for fisheries in the tropics. The main species from a fisheries point of view are: Carcharhinus falciformis, Carcharhinus signatus, Carcharinus longimanus, Carcharinus sorrah and Prionace glauca. However, Carcharinus sorrah is not an oceanic species and it is not considered further. FIGURE 19 Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) FIGURE 20 Geographic distribution of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) (from Compagno, 2001) FIGURE 21 Silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) The silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) (Figure 21), has an oceanic and coastal, circumtropical distribution and most common offshore. It is an oceanic, epipelagic and littoral, tropical shark, found near the edge of continental and insular shelves, as well as far from land in the open sea, to depths of 500 m. It occasionally occurs inshore where the water is as shallow as 18 m. It is an active, quickmoving, aggressive shark. Its population dynamics and stock structure are poorly known. This is one of the three most common oceanic sharks, along with the blue shark (Prionace glauca) and oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharinus longimanus), and one of the more abundant large marine organisms. It is very commonly taken by pelagic longline fisheries, and occasionally by fixed bottom nets. The state of exploitation is unknown. Its wide distribution and high abundance in most tropical shelves of the world suggests that presently there are no major concerns over the conservation of this species globally. The silky shark is at present relatively free of threats in the form of habitat destruction because it does not live inshore nor does it utilize coastal lagoons as pupping or nursery areas like

32 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 22 other shark species. In 2004 slightly more than tonnes were reported, but past catches have been considerably higher. Whitetip shark (Carcharinus longimanus), is an oceanic shark found in tropical and warmtemperate waters of the Atlantic, possibly in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Indian Ocean and in the Pacific. It is usually found far offshore in the open sea but it sometimes occurs in water as shallow as 37 m inshore, particularly off oceanic islands or in continental areas where the shelf is very narrow. It is regularly caught with pelagic longlines, also handlines and occasionally pelagic and even bottom trawls. It is utilized fresh, smoked and dried salted for human consumption, for hides, for fins (processed into the ingredients for shark-fin soup), and for liver oil (extracted for vitamins) and fishmeal. Although it is one of the most common oceanic sharks, recorded catches total only 187 tonnes in Blue shark (Prionace glauca) (Figure 22), has a worldwide distribution in temperate and tropical oceanic waters. It is one of the most abundant and the most heavily fished shark in the world, often as bycatch in pelagic longlines fisheries, but also on hook-and-lines, in pelagic trawls, and even bottom trawls near the coasts. In 2004 more than tonnes were recorded. Catches of requiem sharks (Figure 23) reported to FAO were less than tonnes in the 1950s, increasing to tonnes in the 1960s and 1970s. After a brief decline in the early 1980s, reported catches have increased more or less steadily to more than tonnes in Catches are reported from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans with blue shark, spot-tail shark (Carcharinus sorrah, a coastal non-oceanic species taken primarily within EEZs) and silky shark being the most important species Hammerhead, bonnethead and scoophead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) Catch (thousand tonnes) FIGURE 22 Blue shark (Prionace glauca) FIGURE 23 Catches of requiem sharks (family Carcharhinidae) as reported to FAO Sharks - Carcharhinidae Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean The family Sphyrnidae comprises nine species: the winghead shark (Eusphyra blochii), the scalloped bonnethead (Sphyrna corona), the whitefin hammerhead (Sphyrna couardi), the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini), the scoophead (Sphyrna media), the great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), the bonnethead (Sphyrna tiburo), the smalleye hammerhead (Sphyrna tudes), and the smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena). The members of the family are considered coastal; occasionally occurring in brackish water with a global distribution mostly in warm waters. Although all species are caught, only the scalloped hammerhead and the smooth hammerhead are reported as individual species in the FAO statistics. The smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena) was believed to be an amphitemperate species (i.e. occurs in temperate water in the northern and southern hemispheres, absent from the tropics), but it is now known to occur in the tropics. It has a circumglobal distribution. It is an active, common, coastalpelagic and semi-oceanic species. It is caught with pelagic longlines, handlines, as well as bottom and pelagic trawls.

33 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 23 The scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) (Figure 24) has essentially a circumglobal distribution in coastal and semioceanic warm temperate and tropical seas. It occurs over continental and insular shelves and in deep water adjacent to them, often approaching close inshore and entering enclosed bays and estuaries. Its depth range is from the intertidal at the surface to depths of about 275 m. It is probably the most abundant hamerhead. This species is apparently highly mobile and in part migratory, forming huge schools of small migrating individuals. Owing to its abundance, the species is common in inshore artisanal and small scale commercial fisheries, as well as offshore operations. It is caught with pelagic longlines, fixed bottom longlines, fixed bottom nets, and even bottom and pelagic trawls. The young are easily caught on light longline gear. Given its lifehistory characteristics, the scalloped hammerhead shark is expected to have very low resilience to exploitation and fisheries for the species should be managed with great caution. Although its worldwide distribution and known high abundance gives the species some protection globally, the risk of local depletions remains a serious concern. Catches of Sphyrnidae have been reported only from the Atlantic Ocean since 1991 (Figure 25). The catch was near tonnes in Catch (thousand tonnes) FIGURE 24 Scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) FIGURE 25 Catches of hammerhead, bonnethead, or scoophead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) as reported to FAO Sharks - Sphyrnidae Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean (negligible) Atlantic Ocean Mackerel sharks Mackerel sharks (currently family Lamnidae, although UNCLOS Annex 1 refers to them as Isurida) have a worldwide distribution in temperate and tropical seas. There are five species in the Lamnidae family: the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus), the longfin mako (Isurus paucus), the salmon shark (Lamna ditropis), and the porbeagle (Lamna nasus). The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) (Figure 26 and 27), is mostly amphitemperate found in coastal and offshore areas of continental and insular shelves. Its depth range goes from the surface to below m and individuals have been observed to cross ocean basins and enter deep tropical waters during migration (Bonfil et al., 2005). The great white shark is of little interest to commercial FIGURE 26 The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) FIGURE 27 Geographic distribution of the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) (from Compagno, 2001)

34 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 24 fisheries, but its sensitivity to harvest has led to its listing on CITES Appendix II in It is also listed on Annex II to the Protocol Endangered or Threatened Species of the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea, and protected by several countries including South Africa, Australia, United States of America, Malta. The shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) (Figures 28 and 29) is a coastal and oceanic circumglobal species found in temperate and tropical waters, generally warmer than 16 C. It occurs from the surface down to at least 150 m. The shortfin mako may be the fastest shark and one of the swiftest and most active fishes. This is an important species for longline fisheries where it occurs, because of its high quality meat. It is also a prime game fish prized by sport anglers. Given its life-history characteristics, the shortfin mako is expected to have medium resilience to exploitation (relative to other sharks). Its worldwide distribution and relatively high abundance in some areas probably means it is not currently at risk, but like all elasmobranch it can be easily overfished and localized depletion is always a risk. According to ICCAT (2005) the possibility that the biomass in the north Atlantic is below that producing MSY cannot be ruled out, but it in the south Atlantic it is probably above. The longfin mako (Isurus paucus) (Figures 30 and 31) is an oceanic, warm water, epipelagic species, probably circumtropical, but records are sporadic with the result that the distribution is poorly known. The species is probably often mistaken for the apparently far more common shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) or included with records for it. However, it was apparently common in the western Atlantic and possibly in the Central Pacific (whether it is still common is unknown), but rare elsewhere. It is probably taken regularly in tropical pelagic longline fisheries for tuna and swordfish as bycatch. In addition to longlines, the species is taken with hooks and lines and with anchored gill nets. Little is known about the state of longfin mako shark populations. Without such information, management should be cautious with fisheries that catch this species. FIGURE 28 Shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) FIGURE 29 Geographic distribution of the shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) (from Compagno, 2001) FIGURE 30 Longfin mako shark (Isurus paucus) FIGURE 31 Geographic distribution of the longfin mako (Isurus paucus) (from Compagno, 2001)

35 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 25 The salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) (Figures 32 and 33) is a common coastal-littoral, offshore and epipelagic shark, found in cool waters of the north Pacific, at depths from the surface to below 150 m. Salmon sharks are common in continental offshore waters but range inshore to just off beaches; they also are abundant far from land in the North Pacific Ocean basin. This species has been fished in the North Pacific in the past by oceanic longliners and offshore gillnetters. They are also caught in salmon seines, by salmon trollers towing hooks, and possibly by bottom trawlers off Alaska. They are occasionally trammel-netted by halibut fishermen off California and as bycatch in gillnets set for swordfish and threshers sharks off California. Sports anglers in Alaska and Canada catch salmon sharks using rod and reel much like porbeagle anglers in the North Atlantic. The species is considered heavily fished even though most of the catch is discarded bycatch. It has a negative image as an abundant and lowvalue pest that avidly eats or damages valuable salmon and wrecks gear, which encourages fishers to kill it. Knowledge of its biology is limited despite its abundance, but its fecundity is very low and the species probably cannot sustain current fishing pressure for extended periods. The porbeagle (Lamna nasus) (Figures 34 and 35) is a coastal and oceanic, amphitemperate species, with its centres of distribution in the North Atlantic, and in a circumglobal band of temperate water of the southern Atlantic, southern Indian, southern Pacific and Antarctic Oceans. The porbeagle is most abundant on the continental offshore fishing banks, but it is also found far from land in ocean basins and occasionally close inshore. This shark usually occurs in cold water, less than 18 C and down to 1 C. The porbeagle is found at the surface down to depths of about 350 m or more, singly and in schools and feeding aggregations. Porbeagles may come inshore and to the surface in summer, and over- winter offshore beneath the surface. Catches in Europe indicate that the porbeagle segregates by size (age) and gender. Porbeagles of the western North Atlantic seem to constitute a single stock that undertakes extensive migrations between southern Newfoundland (Canada) in summer to at least Massachusetts (USA) in the winter. Longterm tagging data suggest FIGURE 32 Salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) FIGURE 33 Geographic distribution of the salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) (from Compagno, 2001) FIGURE 34 Porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) FIGURE 35 Geographic distribution of the porbeagle (Lamna nasus) (from Compagno, 2001) that there is no mixing between this population and that of the eastern North Atlantic. Porbeagles breed on both sides of the North Atlantic. This species has been heavily fished commercially and utilized for human consumption in the temperate North Atlantic and the Mediterranean, but is also caught as bycatch in the Southern Hemisphere (e.g. it is the second most common shark taken as bycatch of the New Zealand longline fishery). Stocks in the North Atlantic have shown signs of serious overexploitation as indicated by a large decline in catch. The western Atlantic stock is currently considered overexploited. For the northeast Atlantic, ICES (2005) concluded that the stock is depleted and no fishery should be permitted. In the

36 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 26 past, porbeagles were considered a nuisance to commercial fishermen because they wrecked light gear set for bony fishes (such as cod nets) and bit fish off hooks. Porbeagle are an important bycatch of Japanese longliners and probably of the pelagic fishing fleets of other countries fishing in the southern Indian Ocean and elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, where information on catches is poor and may be little-utilized except for fins. Reported catches of Lamnidae increased sharply from less than tonnes in the mid 1950s to almost tonnes in 1963 (Figure 36). More recently, reported catches have increased steadily from about tonnes in the early 1980s Catch (thousand tonnes) FIGURE 36 Catches of mackerel sharks (family Lamnidae) as reported to FAO Sharks - Lamnidae Southern Ocean (negligible) Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean (negligible) Atlantic Ocean to almost tonnes in 2004, mostly shortfin mako (5 000 tonnes) and porbeagle (1 000 tonnes) sharks The fisheries As highlighed in FAO (2000b), sharks are long-lived, slow-growing, and producing few offspring. These characteristics are associated with low productivity. They imply that the production of recruits is closely linked to the spawning stock of adults. Stock recovery should be expected to be slow in the event that overexploitation depletes stocks. The number of shark species is small compared with the number of species of bony fishes, but they occupy a variety of habitats from near shore to the ocean abyss. They are most numerous at depths less than 200 m in tropical and warm temperate marine habitats. Shark fisheries pre-date recorded history, and every part of these animals has been used for some purpose. Shark meat is important food consumed fresh, dried, salted or smoked. In many communities fins of sharks are among the world s most expensive fishery products. Shark cartilage and other products are increasingly sought for medicinal purposes. Few fisheries use the whole animal however: some use only the meat, others only use the fins, or livers or skin. In the majority of cases where only a portion of the animal is used, the rest is discarded at sea, which makes species identification of the catch difficult. Fisheries for sharks are common throughout the world and use a variety of fishing gears and vessels. Sharks are taken mainly by gillnet and hook or trawl in industrial and artisanal fisheries. Small amounts are taken in traditional and recreational fisheries (game fishers and divers) and in beach gillnet and drumline fishing as bather protection programmes. There are several fisheries directed at one or a small number of species of shark, but most sharks are taken in multispecies fisheries where the fishers tend to target more highly valued traditional bony fish species. The following categories of shark fisheries can be identified: coastal hook and gillnet fisheries, demersal trawl bycatch fisheries, deepwater bycatch fisheries, pelagic bycatch fisheries (primarily bycatch in tuna longline and purse seine fisheries) and freshwater shark fisheries. Since most shark catch is taken as bycatch, most of the catch is reported as unidentified shark, mixed fish or is not reported at all. This lack of species identification of the catches and lack of information on fishing effort means basic data for fishery assessment are not available for most species. An important concern about fisheries that catch sharks is that harvest strategies designed to maximize economic and social benefits from multi-species fisheries have a high probability of depleting the least productive species (such as sharks), unless methods for making fishing more selective (thus able to avoid overfishing vulnerable species like sharks) are developed and

37 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 27 implemented. As fishing effort increases, older and larger individuals and larger species disappear from the assemblage to be replaced by smaller counterparts. This results in a gradual drift towards shorter-lived, faster-growing species, which negatively effects biodiversity State of the stocks The state of the stocks has been described under each species. In general, sharks are vulnerable to overexploitation and depletion, especially locally. In the absence of stock specific information on the state of fisheries and fishery resources, it is prudent to consider the state of shark populations as being at least fully exploited, and to apply a precautionary approach to management. The general state of exploitation of oceanic sharks is summarized in Table 2, where it is shown that of the 33 species group-area combination, 13 are unknown (39 percent). Of the remaining 20, none are considered underexploited or recovering, 10 percent are considered moderately exploited, 35 percent fully exploited, 40 percent overexploited, and 15 percent depleted. TABLE 2 Summary of the state of exploitation of oceanic sharks Species/stock Catches State of exploitation Bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) N Basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) O-D Thresher shark (Alopias pelagicus) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F-O Thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus) F-O Thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) F-O Thresher shark (Alopias spp.) Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F Requiem shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) N - M Whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) N Blue shark (Prionace glauca) N Winghead shark (Eusphyra blochii) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Scalloped bonnethead (Sphyrna corona) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Whitefin hammerhead (Sphyrna couardi) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) F-O Scoophead (Sphyrna media) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Bonnethead (Sphyrna tiburo) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Smalleye hammerhead (Sphyrna tudes) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena) N Sphyrnidae

38 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 28 Species/stock Catches State of exploitation Great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) 2 4 D Shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) M-F-O Longfin mako (Isurus paucus) N Salmon shark (Lamna ditropis) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A F-O Porbeagle (Lamna nasus) O-D As for tuna and tuna-like species, the status of oceanic sharks fishery resources have been described as being considerably worse than is indicated above (e.g. Baum et al., 2003; Baum and Myers, 2004). Scientists involved in the assessments of northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sharks while agreeing that there have been declines in the populations of some species, believe that the magnitude of the changes are smaller than those reported in the aforementioned presumably authoritative publications (Burgess et al., 2005) 3.3 Other highly migratory species The species in this section, unlike tunas and to some extent sharks, have not attracted large or high profile fisheries. Therefore, there is little information about these species and their state of exploitation, other than reported catches and some information on their biological characheristics and geographical distribution, summarized in the FAO Species Identification and Data Programme (SIDP) web site, Fishbase and other FAO information resources Pomfrets The pomfrets (family Bramidae) include eight genera and 21 species. Annex I of UNCLOS refers to the family Bramidae without listing individual species. Thus all 21 species are considered Highly Migratory with respect to UNCLOS The Bramidae is a family of pelagic, benthopelagic and bathypelagic fishes found in temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. The main characteristic of most of the species is that they are oceanodromous, that is, they migrate within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, with migrations being cyclical, predictable and covering more than 100 km. The worldwide landings of pomfrets are poorly documented. The FAO fishery statistics database lists Atlantic pomfret (Brama brama) (Figure 37), Pomfrets, and ocean breams not elsewhere included (nei). Maximum landings were close to tonnes in 2001, from eighteen countries fishing in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but in tonnes were recorded (Figure 38). Because pomfrets are mostly caught as a bycatch in other fisheries, there is very limited biological information on the species. Pomfrets are included in management plans in the United States of America and Australia, but they do not appear to be assessed by international fisheries bodies. FIGURE 37 The Atlantic pomfret (Brama brama) Although their state of exploitation is not known, they are unlikely to be overexploited. According to the FAO (2005a), they appear to be fully exploited in the eastern Indian Ocean, and moderately exploited in the southwest Pacific.

39 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 29 FIGURE 38 Catches of pomfrets and ocean breams as reported to FAO Catch (thousand tonnes) Pomfrets and Ocean breams Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Sauries Sauries belong to the Scomberesocidae family. The species included in Annex 1 of UNCLOS are the Atlantic saury (Scomberesox saurus), the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), the saury (C. adocetus), and the king gar (Scomberesox saurus scombroides). The list contains three species and one subspecies belonging to one of the species cited. The species Scomberesox saurus has two subspecies: S. saurus saurus and S. saurus scombroides. It is therefore assumed that Scomberesox saurus in Annex 1 is Scomberesox saurus saurus. All these species are pelagic, schooling and oceanodromous. The Atlantic saury (Scomberesox saurus saurus) lives near the surface in the north Atlantic, in the Baltic Sea and throughout the Mediterranean. The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) (Figures 39 and 40), is widely distributed in the north Pacific. It is generally found offshore, usually near the surface and migrates seasonally. It is the object of a substantial fishery and is a popular fish in Japan. Most of the reported catches are from this species. The saury (C. adocetus), is a tropical species of the Eastern Pacific. The king gar (Scomberesox saurus scombroides) lives in brackish and marine waters, it is only of minor commercial importance and it occurs in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans with circumglobal distribution in temperate waters of the southern hemisphere. Only six countries have reported saury landings to FAO. Landings have fluctuated FIGURE 39 The Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) FIGURE 40 Geographic distribution of the Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) (from Eschmeyer, Herald and Hammann, 1983) between tonnes and tonnes since 1950, without a clear long term trend since the early 1970s (Figure 41). Japan accounts for 49 percent to 98 percent of the reported total landings. The Pacific saury accounts for more than 95 percent of the reported landings. Slightly more than tonnes were reported in Similar to pomfrets, sauries are included in national management plans in some countries but they are not a species of direct interest for international fisheries bodies. Although their state of exploitation is not known, sauries are unlikely to be overexploited.

40 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 30 FIGURE 41 Catches of sauries as reported to FAO Sauries Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean (negligible) Catch (thousand tonnes) Dolphinfish The two dolphinfishes of the Coryphaenidae family, the common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) and the Pompano dolphinfish (Coryphaena equiselis), are included in Annex 1 of UNCLOS. Both species follow boats and associate with floating objects which may be used as attracting devices in fisheries. FIGURE 43 Geographic distribution of the common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) (modified from Collette, 1999) The Pompano dolphinfish (Coryphaena equiselis) has a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical seas. It is primarily an oceanic species but may enter coastal waters. More than forty countries reported dolphinfish landings to FAO (C. hippurus only). Reported landings show a sustained increasing trend from tonnes in 1950 to almost tonnes in the early 2000s (Figure 44). Slightly more than tonnes were reported in 2003 and Seven reporting entities have consistently declared landings since The Pacific Catch (thousand tonnes) FIGURE 42 The common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) The common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) (Figures 42 and 43) is generally common in most warm and temperate seas, at 21º to 30º C in the Atlantic (including the Mediterranean), the Western and Eastern Indian ocean and in the Western Central Pacific. It is an epipelagic species (i.e living or feeding in surface waters to depths of 200 m). FIGURE 44 Catches of dolphinfish as reported to FAO Dolphinfish Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean

41 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 31 Ocean accounts for more than the half of catches, with Japan and Taiwan Province of China being by far the largest contributors. Some dolphinfish fisheries within EEZs are actively managed, sometimes using interesting spatial approaches (e.g. the lampuki fishery in Malta). Although the state of exploitation is not known, dolphinfish are unlikely to be overexploited State of the stocks As discussed above, the state of exploitation of other highly migratory species of pomfrets, sauries and dolphinfish is poorly known or not known, and in most cases there is not even reliable information on catches. Nevertheless, in some cases a more or less educated guess of the most likely state of exploitation is possible based on fragmented information on life history patterns, geographical distribution, and available catches. This information is summarized in Table 3. Pomfrets are moderately or fully exploited in the Indian Ocean, while the state of sauries and dolphinfish is unknown, but based on available information it seems unlikely that they are being overexploited. Thus, would be either moderately or fully exploited, although this will need to be confirmed, particularly, prior to any further expansion of the exploitation. TABLE 3 Summary of the state of exploitation of selected other highly migratory species Species/stock Catches State of exploitation Pomfrets (several species) M-F Sauris (several species) N(M-F?) Dolphinfish (Coryphaena spp.) N(M-F?) 4. SELECTED STRADDLING FISH STOCKS The list of straddling stocks in FAO (1994) was taken as a starting point for this review. Enquiries were sent to Regional Fisheries Bodies soliciting regional knowledge to refine the lists. Information was received for the Northeast and the Southeast Atlantic. For the Northwest and Southwest Atlantic, and the Northeast, Eastern Central and Southeast Pacific, staff of the FAO Fisheries Department or its consultants applied their own informed judgements. For the Western and Eastern Central Atlantic, the Southwest Pacific and for the Indian Ocean, catches by country (within statistical areas) were examined to determine which species were being reported by non-coastal States which were presumed to be fishing on the high seas. This information was tempered by knowledge of situations where distant water fishing countries have access agreements to EEZ, particularly when the species in the reported catch were not known to be in commercial abundance on the high seas. Using this approach, a refined list of species (by FAO statistical area) likely to be fished as straddling stock and other high seas fish stock was prepared. This included 129 species/stocks and a brief description of the main, straddling stocks by major area as given below and in Section 5 the same is done for the other high seas fish stocks. An examination of the continental shelves, defined for the purpose of this review by the 200 metres depth contour, and the 200 nm contour from the coastline which generally corresponds to EEZs (Figure 45), suggests that there are several areas where stocks of demersal fishes associated with the continental shelves could be straddling: a small area north of Russia and the United States in the North Pacific, a small area off Argentina in the Southeast Atlantic, the nose and tail of the Newfoundland Grand Bank off Canada in the Northwest Atlantic, an area between Norway and Russia in the Northeast Atlantic (the so-called Loop Hole), an area off Mauritius and the Seychelles in the Western Indian Ocean, and another area off the Russian EEZ in the Northwest Pacific ocean.

42 The state of the world highly migratory, straddling and other high seas fish stocks, and associated species 32 Other known areas of straddling stocks are the Donut Hole in the middle of the Bering Sea in the Northeast Pacific, the Peanut Hole in the Sea of Hokhotsk in the Northwest Pacific, the Challenger Plateau west of New Zealand and the South Tasmanian Rise in the Eastern Indian ocean. This implies that the U.S.A, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Norway, Australia, and New Zealand are the coastal States most likely affected or potentially affected by demersal straddling stocks problems. Meltzer (2005) comes to a similar conclusion about areas with the potential of straddling stocks, highlighting in addition the Eastern Central Atlantic (FAO Area 34) off West Africa, the Southwest Atlantic (FAO Area 41) and off almost the entire east coast of South America. FIGURE 45 Continental shelf areas within and beyond the 200 nm limit off the coast The main species that constitute straddling stocks are generally well studied (e.g. cod, pollock, flounders) compared to several highly migratory species, particularly the non-tunas. Such information is readily available from various published sources of information or reports or web pages from regional fishery bodies. Therefore, this document does not review the biology, and life history and migratory behaviour of these species. As indicated before, there is no global database distinguishing between catches of straddling stocks within and outside EEZ s. Therefore, graphs of catches are not presented in this section except for the southern Ocean, where we report on all of the species fished in the CCAMLR convention area as if they were straddling stocks Pacific Ocean Northwest Pacific Straddling stocks in the Northwest Pacific include Alaska (Walleye) pollock (Theragra chalcogramma), flying squid (Ommastrephes bartrami), Boreal clubhook squid (Onychoteuthys borealjaponica), Boreopacific armhook squid (Gonatopsis borealis), Pacific Ocean Perch (Sebastes alutus), pelagic armourhead (Pentaceros richardsoni) and the alfonsino (Beryx splendens). Based on FAO (2005a), the pollock is considered fully exploited while the squids vary from moderately to fully exploited, and in some cases recovering. Based on reported landings, the Pacific Ocean Perch is considered depleted, while the state of pelagic armourhead and alfonsino is not known.