Pre-assessment for Western Kamchatka Salmon Fishery. Prepared for

Transcription

1 Pre-assessment for Western Kamchatka Salmon Fishery Prepared for Vityaz-Avto Co Ltd and Delta Co Ltd [OOO Витязь-Авто и ООО Дельта] Contact: Mr. Andrei Bokov Str. Stepnaya 5, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Kamchatsky region, Russian Federation Prepared by Wild Salmon Center 721 NW Ninth Avenue, Suite 300, Portland, OR U.S.A. Assessment Team: Randy Ericksen, Wild Salmon Center Jocelyn Drugan, Ph.D., Wild Salmon Center Denis Semenov, WWF Russia November 21, 2014

2 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 1 Table of Contents 1. Executive summary Introduction Aims/scope of pre- assessment Constraints to the pre- assessment of the fishery Unit(s) of certification Description of the fishery Scope of the fishery in relation to the MSC programme Overview of the fishery Principle One: Target species background Principle Two: Ecosystem background Principle Three: Management system background Evaluation Procedure Assessment methodologies used Summary of site visits and meetings held during pre- assessment Stakeholders to be consulted during a full assessment Harmonisation with any overlapping MSC certified fisheries Traceability ( relevant to chain of custody certification) Eligibility of fishery products to enter further chains of custody Preliminary evaluation of the fishery Applicability of the default assessment tree Expectations regarding use of the Risk- Based Framework (RBF) Evaluation of the fishery Other specific to this fishery Summary of likely PI scoring levels References Annex 1. Provisional evaluation of the fishery against the Performance Indicators 44 Pre- assessment evaluation tables Principle 1 Even- year Pink Salmon Principle 1 Odd- year Pink Salmon Principle 1 Chum Salmon Principle 1 Sockeye Salmon Principle 1 Coho Salmon Principle Principle

3 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 2 1. Executive summary Randy Ericksen and Jocelyn Drugan of the Wild Salmon Center conducted this assessment with the assistance of Denis Semenov of World Wildlife Fund, Russia. This was a desktop assessment conducted using information requested from the clients. The clients compiled information they had available and requested information from KamchatNIRO as appropriate. The clients were responsible for translating information into English. Some, but not all, information requested was provided. Additional information was obtained from the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC) website. The client fisheries occur in the western part of Kamchatka Peninsula on the Sea of Okhotsk coast (coastal trap nets) and the lower reaches (beach seines) of six large coastal rivers, the Ozernaya, Koshegochek, Golgina, Opala, Kol and Vorovskaya. The pre-assessment covers wild pink, chum, and coho salmon returning to all of these rivers, as well as sockeye salmon (excluding Ozernaya River sockeye salmon which are currently certified by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)). This is not considered an enhanced fishery because there are no hatcheries in the certification unit. The fishery targets pink salmon during even-years and other species (primarily chum and coho salmon) during odd-years when pink salmon are less abundant. Information provided indicates that annual runs of these species have been stable or increasing in recent years. Sockeye and odd-year pink salmon are not targeted in these fisheries but are caught incidentally. Aggregate escapement targets for the entire Western Kamchatka Region have been developed for even-year pink salmon and coho salmon. There are also sockeye salmon escapement targets for individual lake-systems in the certification unit. KamchatNIRO stated that optimal production of chum salmon is achieved with a minimum aggregate escapement of 800,000 fish, but it was not clear if this was an official management target or a general guideline. The clients did not provide escapement data sufficient for assessing management performance relative to escapement targets. Escapement data available from NPAFC suggests that even-year pink salmon escapements have been fluctuating around their escapement targets, but escapements of coho and chum salmon have been below their targets. Available escapement data for sockeye salmon was insufficient to assess management performance in the certification unit. Based on the information provided, even-year pink salmon could likely achieve MSC certification with conditions as long as data is provided verifying that escapements are generally meeting escapement targets. However, the likelihood of certification is somewhat uncertain due to the large number of yellow scores for the Principle 2 and 3 indicators that could result in Principle scores less than 80. It is unlikely that the other species would achieve MSC certification based on the information provided for this pre-assessment. Information available from NPAFC suggests that Western Kamchatka chum and coho salmon are not meeting escapement targets. The data provided was insufficient for determining whether odd-year pink salmon and sockeye salmon are meeting escapement targets. Information is needed from KamchatNIRO to justify the escapement targets and demonstrate that stocks are generally meeting the targets. 2. Introduction 2.1 Aims/scope of pre-assessment This report provides a pre-assessment of salmon fisheries according to standards of Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) for the clients Vityaz-Avto Co Ltd and Delta Co Ltd. The client companies fish for the following Pacific salmon species: pink salmon (Oncorhynchus

4 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 3 gorbuscha), chum salmon (O. keta), sockeye salmon (O. nerka), and coho salmon (O. kisutch). This pre-assessment includes pink, chum, and coho salmon caught in the Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, and Ozernaya rivers, as well as sockeye salmon for the Vorovskaya, Kol, and Opala rivers. Ozernaya River sockeye salmon have already been MSC certified under a separate assessment. This report only provides recommendations; full certification will be conducted completely independently of pre-assessment results. A preassessment of a fishery does not attempt to duplicate a full assessment against the MSC standard. A full assessment involves expert team members and public consultation stages that are not included in a pre-assessment. A pre-assessment provides a provisional assessment of a fishery based on information provided by the client. 2.2 Constraints to the pre-assessment of the fishery Every attempt was made to obtain the information necessary to conduct a thorough preassessment of this fishery. Nevertheless, some key data was not provided to the team. Specifically, the lack of escapement data hindered a robust assessment of management performance and stock status. The limited escapement data obtained from NPAFC was helpful but may not be entirely appropriate for the purpose for which it was used. The information provided to the team was translated from Russian into English. The translations were sometimes unclear, requiring the team to request clarification or infer the meaning of the text. Additionally, information requests had to be translated from English to Russian, potentially leading to some confusion. As a result, some of the information provided may have been misinterpreted, even though efforts were made to fully understand the information. 2.3 Unit(s) of certification The MSC Guidelines to Certifiers specifies that the unit of certification is "The fishery or fish stock (biologically distinct unit) combined with the fishing method/gear and practice (vessel(s) pursuing the fish of that stock) and management framework." The fishery under pre-assessment is therefore defined as follows: Species: Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, chum salmon O. keta, sockeye salmon O. nerka and coho salmon O. kisutch. Geographical Area: Sea of Okhotsk, Western coast of Kamchatka peninsula, including the Ust-Bolsheretsk and Sobolevsky districts and within the Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, Golygina, Koshegochek and Ozernaya rivers. Method of Capture: Coastal trap nets, length up to 2000 m in the sea, and beach seines, length up to 200 m in rivers. In the area indicated by companies for fishing, there are 14 marine fishing parcels and 4 river parcels in the Kol, Golygina, Koshegochek and Ozernaya rivers belonging to Vityaz-Avto Co Ltd, and 7 marine parcels and 2 river parcels in the Opala and Ozernaya rivers belonging to Delta Co Ltd. Stock: Populations of four species of Pacific salmon (pink, chum, coho, and sockeye) spawning on the western coast of Kamchatka (Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, Koshegocheck, Golygina and Ozernaya rivers and also adjacent rivers whose populations can be intercepted by the fishery under pre-assessment). Management System: Federal Agency for Fisheries SVTU, regional divisions of Federal Agency for Fisheries.

5 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 4 Regional (Kamchatka) Fisheries Research Institute, KamchatNIRO. Regional (Russian Far East) Fisheries Research Institute, TINRO-Center. All-Russia Fisheries Research Institute, VNIRO. SevvostRybvod. 3. Description of the fishery 3.1 Scope of the fishery in relation to the MSC programme Based on the information provided, the fishery is within scope of MSC certification. The fishery does not include introduced species or inseparable or practically inseparable (IPI) species. The fishery targets naturally reproducing salmon stocks returning to rivers within the certification unit. There are no hatcheries located within the proposed certification unit. Therefore, this is not considered an enhanced fishery. 3.2 Overview of the fishery The fishery occurs in the Western part of Kamchatka Peninsula on the Sea of Okhotsk coast and the lower reaches of six large coastal rivers, the Ozernaya, Koshegochek, Golgina, Opala, Kol and Vorovskaya (Figure 1). The region of the fishery is remote and largely undeveloped. Watersheds are in excellent condition and salmon habitat diverse and highly productive. The human population is concentrated in about 10 small communities, the largest of which are Usk-Bolsheresk and Oktiabrsky. The local populations have been declining due to limited economic opportunity in the region. These rivers are all considered remote as they are not accessible by main roads, although there is a road built for the natural gas pipeline near the middle section of the Kol River. There is one traditional fishery parcel for indigenous peoples and two sport fishing parcels in the Vorokskaya River basin. Historical Background Fishing is and has always been the primary occupation of people of western Kamchatka, including indigenous peoples. The Russian fishery on the Ozernaya started in 1897, and the first settlement was founded in Industrial salmon fisheries have operated in western Kamchatka at least since 1914, when a cannery began operation on the Ozernaya River. The fishing industry expanded during the Soviet period, although catches began to decrease in the 1950s due to interceptions by Japanese driftnet fishing and unfavorable ocean conditions for salmon production. A series of events fundamentally changed the fishery situation by the early 1990s. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a period of severe economic disruption. At the same time, salmon returns increased considerably following improvements in ocean conditions for salmon throughout the North Pacific during the 1980s and an international ban on unregulated high seas drift net fishing outside of the Russian Exclusive Economic Zone in Fishing parcels and fishing rights were also redistributed during the economic crisis. Until Perestroika, fishing was conducted by very few governmental enterprises. After 1990, commercial fishery access was leased to small private companies. Two such fishing companies are included in this assessment: Vityaz-Avto and Delta. Vityaz- Avto was founded in 1997 and grew quickly. The company has three branches in the western coast of Kamchatka in the towns of Ozernovsky, Oktiabrsky and Sobolevo. Most production is sold abroad to Japan and Canada. Delta has operated in the Ozernaya and Opala river areas of Kamchatka since More than half of total production is exported to Asian countries. The Ozernaya sockeye salmon fishery operated by Vityaz-Avto and Delta achieved MSC certification in September The fishery is scheduled for the second surveillance audit in the fall of Fishing Methods

6 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 5 The fishery is prosecuted with fixed trap nets (coastal trap nets) in nearshore marine waters, and with beach seines in the lower reaches of rivers. Coastal trap nets typically consist of a mesh lead set perpendicular to shore to guide fish into one or more mesh wing-style traps, where narrowing mesh fykes make it difficult for fish to exit. The mesh lead or fence is usually m in length and m deep at low tide. The mesh size of the central net and the traps is chosen to prevent fish from being gilled in the net cells. Traps are constructed of net mesh on a steel frame, typically have a wall height of 9 m, and do not reach bottom. Coastal trap nets are effective because tidal exchange is relatively small and littoral areas are wide and gradually-sloped. Traps have proven to be especially efficient at capturing fish migrating in the coastal area. This type of fishing is passive, and catch per unit effort is related to the intensity of the run strength. Coastal trap nets are operated from small boats. Catch is typically crowded from traps and dip netted or brailed into boats for transport to onshore fish processing facilities where they are off-loaded. Beach seines are long nets used to encircle and crowd fish toward shore where they can be captured. These seines are typically 200 m in length. Seines are fished in the shallow waters of the lower river where the current is relatively slow. Seines are set from small skiffs and hauled from shore with vehicles and by hand. The companies pay considerable attention to investing in community development projects of the towns in western Kamchatka where they are based. In addition to employing the local inhabitants in fish processing factories, the company contributes to maintaining the social sphere of the town and has numerous letters of gratitude from different organizations in the area. Fishermen are hired by contract they have a salary and then may receive extra pay based on catch results. The companies generally process and freeze all of their catch at their own fish processing factories. Fish processing plants are operated by the fishing companies near the mouths of the Ozernaya, Koshegochek and Opala Rivers near the areas where main fishing activities occur. These plants process the catch from sea nets and lower river fishing parcels. Local catches are delivered by boats to the processing plants. Organization and User Rights The fishing areas are situated in the western part of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Administratively, these areas are a part of the Ust-Bolsheretsk and Sobolevsky districts of the Kamchatka Krai of the Far East Federal Region of the Russian Federation. In terms of fisheries subdivision, these areas are a part of Kamchatka-Kuril and Western Kamchatka subzones of Sea of Okhotsk. The Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, and Ozernaya rivers are not located near main roads, although there is a road built for the natural gas pipeline near the middle section of the Kol River. There is one traditional fishery parcel for indigenous peoples and two sport fishing parcels in the Vorokskaya River basin. Fishing parcels consisting of trap or seine sites are leased to fishing companies under a long-term lease arrangement. Fishing parcels were distributed for period Only commercial fishing occurs in sea fishing parcels. River parcels may be allocated for commercial fishing, sport fishing or hatchery purposes. Vityaz-Avto leases 18 fishing parcels, 14 of which are in the sea, and 4 of which are in the Ozernaya, Koshebochek, Golygina and Kol rivers. Delta leases 9 fishing parcels, 7 of which are in the sea, and 2 of which are in the Ozernaya and Opala rivers (Table 1).

7 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 6 Vorovskaya Kol Opala Golygina Koshegochek Ozernaya Kilometers ± Figure 1. Western Kamchatka areas covered under this pre-assessment.

8 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 7 Table 1. List of fishing parcels permitted for use by Vityaz-Avto and Delta companies. Parcels denoted with a * are rarely fished in practice. Owner Parcel Water body 752 Ozernaya river Latitude Longitude Length/ Processing Deg min sec Deg min sec width (m) location Low point m from the mouth, top point m from the mouth (south part of the island) 200/'-- Ozernaya 189 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya and Koshegochek Vityaz- Avto Delta 191 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya and Koshegochek 197 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya 203 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya 204 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya 746 Golygina river Koshegochek river Low point m from the mouth, top point m from the mouth (left shore) 2200/-- Low point m from the mouth, top point m from the mouth (both shores) 500/-- Ozernaya and Koshegochek Ozernaya and Koshegochek 747 Low point m from the mouth, top point m from the mouth 697 Kol river (both shores) 2000/-- Kol 90 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Kol 89 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Kol *81 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 at sea (vessels) *80 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 at sea (vessels) *79 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 at sea (vessels) 78 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya and Koshegochek 77 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya and Koshegochek 76 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya and Koshegochek *60 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 at sea (vessels) Low point m from the mouth, top point m from the mouth (left 755 Ozernaya river shore) 400/-- Ozernaya Low point m from the Khetik river mouth, top point m from 740 Opala river the Khetik river mouth (both shores) 1000/-- Opala 177 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Opala 178 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Opala 179 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Opala 180 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Opala 181 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Opala *184 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 at sea (vessels) 198 Sea of Okhotsk /2000 Ozernaya

9 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page Principle One: Target species background Five species of Pacific salmon have historically had commercial significance pink, chum, sockeye, coho and Chinook. However, Western Kamchatka Chinook stocks have been depressed, and commercial fishing for Chinook salmon has been closed since Masu salmon are less numerous, and there are no official statistics for this species. Therefore Chinook and masu salmon are considered as bycatch species for this assessment. A few species of char are commercially harvested and assessed for recommended catch, but their relative commercial importance is low. They are treated as retained species in this report. All six species of Pacific salmon (pink, chum, sockeye, coho, masu and Chinook salmon) are semelparous and anadromous Pacific salmon species. They have both marine and freshwater lifecycle stages. Adults spawn in freshwater, where their offspring hatch and rear before migrating to the ocean. The salmon grow large in the ocean, and then they mature into adults and return to freshwater to spawn and renew the lifecycle. These species die after spawning. Salmon are not considered a Low Trophic Level (LTL) species. However, they do provide an important ecological role as described in Section Pink salmon Distribution and Life history Pink salmon are found throughout the north Pacific, including streams of western Kamchatka. Large populations occur in the Ozernaya, Koshegochek, Golygina, Opala, Kol and Vorovskaya rivers. Russian pink salmon generally range into ocean waters of the Okhotsk and Bering seas. Pink salmon return to western Kamchatka primarily in July and August, and spawning occurs in August and September. Spawning typically occurs in the lower and middle reaches of streams, rivers and sometimes the intertidal zone at the mouths of streams. After spawning all pink salmon die. Like all salmon species, pink salmon bury their eggs in redds (nests) excavated by the females in coarse gravel or cobble-size rock, often in shallow riffles and the downstream ends of pools. Fecundity typically averages about 1,500 eggs per female. Fry hatch after several months, then spend several weeks in the gravel before emerging in late winter or spring to migrate downstream into salt water. Pink salmon fry spend only few days in river. In Western Kamchatka, pink salmon typically average kg in body weight and 50 cm in body length. All pink salmon spawn at the age of two years. As a result, this species forms two independent populations in the same river, entering the river in odd and even years. The odd-year or even-year cycle will typically predominate, although in some streams odd- and even-year pink salmon are about equally abundant. Cycle dominance will occasionally shift so that the previously weak cycle becomes the most abundant. In Western Kamchatka, a massive run of pink salmon in 1983 resulted in an excessive spawning escapement that was followed by depressed odd-year runs (Shevlyakov 2014). The even-year run is now dominant. Genetic analyses of pink salmon stock structure have generally identified broad geographical patterns but little or no difference among local populations in any given region. Genetic differences appear to be less pronounced in Asian pink salmon as compared to North American pink salmon (Zhivotovsky, personal communication). Natural straying among local populations of pink salmon is generally assumed to be more significant than in other salmon species (Zhivotovsky 2010). However, the available information on pink salmon genetic stock structure and straying patterns is not conclusive. It remains unclear whether genetic methods found no stock structure because none existed or because the available methods lacked sufficient power to identify differences. More recent genetic analyses of pink salmon using microsatellites have been similarly inconclusive.

10 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 9 Stock Structure Pink salmon are the most abundant salmon species in western Kamchatka (Semko 1954). This species is currently at historical levels of high production throughout the western Pacific including the rivers in this assessment. Run sizes during odd years have been much smaller than in even years (Figure 2) since 1983, when a very large spawning escapement resulted in a shift in cycle dominance from odd to even years. Directed fishing on pink salmon is limited to the even years. Sea nets, where the majority of harvest typically occurs, are not open during odd years, when the catch of pink salmon is incidental to harvest of other salmon species at fishing sites within the river. Figure 2. Catch and escapement of even- (top) and odd-year (bottom) pink salmon to Western Kamchatka, 2004 to Source: North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission reports. Spawning escapement of pink salmon is estimated based on expansions of aerial counts in a series of index areas throughout western Kamchatka. These surveys estimate that millions of pink salmon spawn in western Kamchatka Rivers during dominant (even-numbered) years (Figure 3). Estimates are also made in subdominant (odd-numbered) years. However, Shevlyakov and Maslov (2011) reported that odd-year escapement estimates are subject to significant error and cannot be used as a prognostic parameter.

11 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 10 Spawner-recruitment analysis of the aggregate western Kamchatka return suggests that maximum sustained yield (MSY) is produced by spawning escapements of approximately million pink salmon (Figure 4, Shevlyakov 2006). Spawning escapement data points are generally distributed around this range for dominant (even-year) broods (Figure 2 top). Figure 3. Total run (bars) and commercial harvest rate (line) of Western Kamchatka even-year pink salmon, Figure 4. Spawner-recruit relationship (Sheppard s model) for Western Kamchatka pink salmon Chum salmon Distribution and Life history

12 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 11 Chum salmon have the widest distribution of any of the Pacific salmon. Chum salmon generally spawn in low gradient temperate and subarctic rivers and streams throughout the north Pacific. They range south to the Sacramento River in California and the island of Kyushu in the Sea of Japan. In the north they range east in the Arctic Ocean to the Mackenzie River in Canada and west to the Lena River in Siberia. Chum salmon are abundant in western Kamchatka streams, including the rivers considered under this preassessment. Chum salmon generally return to western Kamchatka from late June through October. Numbers peak in late August and early September. Chum salmon typically reach their spawning grounds in August and September. Spawning typically occurs in the lower and middle reaches of streams, rivers and sometimes the intertidal zone at the mouths of streams. Spawning areas often occur in areas of upwelling springs. After spawning all chum salmon die. Western Kamchatka chum salmon typically average about 3 to 4.5 kg in body weight and 60 to 70 cm in body length although there has been a general decrease in size in recent years (Shevlyakov 2014). Age of maturity is 2 to 7 years. Age composition varies over time, but 4 and 5 year old fish (age 3+ and 4+) typically account for 75% or more of the annual run. Older fish are usually more abundant in the early portion of the run, and younger fish are more abundant in the later portion of the run (Zavarina 2009, 2010, 2011). Fecundity typically ranges between 2,100 and 3,100 eggs. Eggs incubate over the winter before hatching in early spring. Juvenile chum salmon spend one to two months in fresh water after hatching and then migrate to the sea in the spring. Stock structure Kamchatka chum include spring, summer and fall runs returning in June, July-August, and October-November, respectively. Different runs typically spawn in different portions of a basin, with earlier-returning fish generally traveling farther upstream. Genetic analyses have identified system and run-specific differences among chum populations in other regions. All three run types are present in the area of this assessment. The early run is significant in the Opala River. Status Annual chum salmon runs and commercial harvest rates have steadily increased in western Kamchatka from the very low levels observed in the 1970s (Figure 5). Total run size averaged about 420,000 fish from with commercial catch averaging 300mt and an associated exploitation rate averaging 20%. From , run size averaged 1.3 million fish with commercial catch and exploitation rate averaging 2,000 mt and about 44%, respectively. Since 2010, annual runs have averaged about 5 million chum, exploitation rates have averaged 90% for an annual average harvest of 17,000 mt. A similar pattern of increasing annual runs, commercial catches and exploitation rates for chum salmon has been evident in the rivers covered in this pre-assessment (Figure 6). Chum salmon abundance has been increasing thoughout the North Pacific in recent years (NPAFC 2012). Historically, incidental mortality of chum salmon in the Japanese drift net fishery in the open ocean is blamed for variations in coastal abundance of this species. Large catches in Kamchatka from coincide with the reduction and cessation of the drift fishery. Returns declined from with the resumption of the drift fishery and climatic factors. Numbers rebounded beginning in the 1990s with regulation of the high seas drift net fishery and favorable ocean conditions for salmon throughout the north Pacific.

13 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 12 Figure 5. Total run (bars) and commercial harvest rate (line) of Western Kamchatka chum salmon, Figure 6. Total annual run (catch & escapement) and commercial catch as percent of total of chum salmon run for the Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, and Ozernaya Rivers, (Shevlyakov 2014). The relationship between juvenile production and the number of chum salmon spawners is not as clear as for other species of Pacific salmon. It is thought that juvenile chum production is related more to the relative abundance of spawning pink salmon (Shevlyakov and Zavarina 2004). Low pink salmon escapements do not provide sufficient nutrients for foraging juvenile fish, and excessively large (greater than 60 million) pink salmon escapements can reduce chum egg survival due to associated oxygen depletion in the system. KamchatNIRO believes that in order to provide enough eggs to adequately seed available habitat, the total chum salmon escapement to Western Kamchatka must not be fewer than 800,000 fish (based on forecast materials from KamchatNIRO). However, it is not clear if this is an official minimum escapement target. Information available from the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission suggests that escapements have been below 800,000 fish since 2007 (Figure 7).

14 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 13 Figure 7. Catch and escapement of chum salmon to Western Kamchatka, 2004 to Source North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission reports Sockeye salmon Distribution and Life history Sockeye salmon occur in systems throughout the north Pacific from Washington USA to Kamchatka. Two large populations comprise the majority of the sockeye salmon return in Kamchatka. These are the Ozernaya in western Kamchatka and the Kamchatka River in eastern Kamchatka. Significant sockeye lakes in Kamchatka include Nachikinskoe, Golyginskoe, Kurilsky and Kambalnoe. Smaller populations also occur in a number of other systems throughout the region. Significant sockeye salmon populations also occur in Western Kamchatka in the Bolshaya system (including Lake Nachikinskoe) and the Palana River. Smaller populations occur in the Kikhchik and in Opala rivers. The marine life stage of western Kamchatka sockeye salmon has been studied quite well, primarily for the Ozernaya population. After migrating to the sea, smolts spend 2-3 months in the Sea of Okhotsk near their river of origin, and then they migrate southeastward into the western north Pacific and Bering Sea. In general, sockeye salmon prefer lake and lake-river systems because they rear primarily in lakes and can achieve large abundances in these systems (Bugaev 1995). Sockeye generally rear in the freshwater environment for one year, after which the juveniles migrate to the sea to feed. Important lake-river systems for sockeye salmon in Western Kamchatka are in the basins of the Ozernaya, Bolshaya and Palana Rivers, and this is where the main commercial sockeye salmon fisheries occur. Sockeye salmon production in small and medium river basins is low. Catches of sockeye salmon in the Vorovskaya, Kol and Opala Rivers are relatively small compared to those of other species such as pink, chum and coho salmon, so they are not targeted directly. Catches from near these basins varied depending on whether it was an even or odd year. This is likely due to the use of coastal trap nets during even-years when the dominant pink salmon cycle is targeted. This coastal catch likely represents interception of sockeye salmon returning to the Ozernaya River, and to a lesser degree, the Bolshaya River. KamchatNIRO notes that a sustainable catch is maintained with spawning escapements of 7-10 thousand sockeye salmon in the Vorovskaya, 5-7 thousand in the Kol River; and thousand in the Opala River. However, sockeye salmon are caught incidentally in fisheries

15 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 14 targeting other species, and KamchatNIRO states that special measures to increase escapement of this species are not required because the population is stable. Sockeye salmon escapement data was not provided for these systems Coho salmon Distribution and Life history Coho salmon are generally distributed in streams and rivers throughout the subarctic and temperate north Pacific from the Sea of Okhotsk to northern California (Sandercock 1991). Distribution in Kamchatka is generally limited to the southern portion of the peninsula where coho salmon may be found in most mid-large and large bodies of water. Commercially significant populations occur from Palana Village southward to The Kambalnaya River. Significant populations in southwest Kamchatka occur in the Bolshaya River and in the rivers of the Central-West region, including the Vorovskaya, Krutogorova, Pymta, Kol, and Kikhchik. The Bolshaya River is one of the main areas of coho salmon reproduction on the west coast, containing more than 21% of all spawning grounds. Coho salmon return to freshwater over a protracted period from August to December, spawning as late as February. Spawning typically occurs in a wide range of rivers and streams, including accessible tributaries far upstream. Western Kamchatka coho salmon average kg in size but may reach 5 to 7 kg. Adults typically spawn at 3 to 4 years of age after 1 year at sea. Juvenile coho salmon may rear in streams for one to three years before physiologically transforming to smolts and migrating to the sea. The major rivers of the western coast, such as the Opala, Bolshaya, Kikhchik, Kol and Vorovskaya Rivers have significant populations of coho salmon. Low water temperatures and the presence of shallow gravel areas allow coho salmon to spawn along nearly the entire lengths of the rivers. Coho salmon prefer to spawn in areas with intra-gravel water flow and/or areas with groundwater upwelling. Rivers with significant groundwater upwelling areas typically include two distinct coho salmon runs - summer and autumn (early and late). In years of high coho salmon returns, competition for available spawning area forces some fish to spawn in sub-optimal habitats where the egg survival is poor. The amount of coho salmon spawning habitat varies by river in Western Kamchatka. The Vorovskaya River is one of the largest rivers and accounts for about 8% of the total spawning grounds along the western coast. The Kol, Opala and Ozernaya Rivers contribute 5.0%, 3.3% and 1.7%, respectively of the coho salmon spawning habitat in Western Kamchatka (archives of A.G. Ostroumov). The greatest densities of spawners are found in groundwater upwelling areas where production potential is higher. Nearly 22% of the spawning habitat in the Kol River is in upwelling areas, compared to 19% in the Opala and 10% in the Vorovskaya River. The Ozernaya has the least amount of suitable coho spawning habitat. The spawning migration in the rivers of Western Kamchatka is very prolonged. In recent years, the migration timing of coho salmon has undergone significant changes. Previously mature coho salmon would begin to return in large numbers during the first week of August, and commercial fishing would begin in mid-august. In 2012 and 2013, the spawning migration shifted 7-10 days later, especially in the rivers of the Central-Western area. A laterun of coho salmon enters the rivers beginning about September As with other species that have a protracted freshwater rearing period, coho salmon are characterized by a complex age structure that includes up to 8 different age-at-maturity groups. The age composition of the spawning population varies from year to year but often remains consistent for several years. The commercial harvest is almost always comprised of age of 1.1+, 2.1+, 3.1+ fish that reared in freshwater 1 to 3 years and resided one year in the ocean. In some years, the spawning run may include a small number of fish that spent two

16 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 15 years at sea ( ), and also a small number of jacks or kaurkas that return to freshwater the same year they out-migrate to sea (1.0, 2.0, 3.0). On average, the dominant age class in the Vorovskaya, Kol and Opala Rivers is age 2.1+ (i.e. most juveniles resided in the river for two years before outmigrating to the sea (Figure 8). Figure 8. Coho salmon age structure for some Western Kamchatka Rivers. Status Most Western Kamchatka coho salmon populations declined after but have improved in recent years (Figure 9). There have been several cycles of growth and decline of coho salmon production historically (Zorbidi 2010). For example, one of the largest coho salmon fisheries in Western Kamchatka, the Vorovskaya River, had its highest catch in 1946 (1312 mt), followed by a period of decreased catches. Then the fishery rebounded in the 1960's to the mid 1980's when the annual catch often exceeded 100 mt, and ranged as high as 700 mt. Then the fishery steadily declined through the mid-2000s, ranging from 13.8 mt (1993) to 42.9 mt (2005). In 2010, the Vorovskaya fishery catch reached 312 mt (1.135 million fish). In 2013 the total catch in this river basin was 38.8 mt. However, the reason for the low catch was the late migration timing which resulted in an extended closure of the fishery. As a result, more than 27,000 fish escaped to the spawning grounds in 2013 (Figure 9).

17 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 16 Figure 9. Annual catch (bars) and escapement (lines with square markers) of coho salmon for the Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, and Ozernaya Rivers, (Shevlyakov 2014). The optimal aggregate escapement range for coho salmon returning to Western Kamchatka rivers is estimated to be thousand fish (Figure 10). Total runs of coho salmon have been increasing in recent years, although data reported to the NPAFC suggests that escapement targets have not been reached since 2009 (Figure 11). However, most coho salmon spawn late in the season after aerial surveys have been conducted (Shevlyakov 2014) so escapements are likely under-estimated. Figure 10. Spawner-recruit relationship (Sheppard s model) for Western Kamchatka coho salmon based on and brood years.

18 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 17 Figure 11. Catch and escapement of coho salmon to Western Kamchatka, 2004 to Source: North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission reports Management Assessment methods Data collected for fishery management purposes include catch estimation based on daily reporting of commercial fishery landings, fishery catch per unit effort, regular subsampling of the catch for estimation of biological characteristics, and estimation of run size and spawning escapement. Stock assessment data have been collected for all species of Pacific salmon in the area under assessment since the 1950s. Detailed records on daily harvest are kept because fishermen are paid in part based on their catch volume, and companies are required to maintain detailed records for production and licensing purposes. Fish volumes are recorded upon delivery to the processing plants. All fish delivered to the plants for processing and sale are weighed. Amounts are then recorded at several stages throughout processing. Numbers are reported by the fishing companies to the management authorities who compile the information for each fishing area for weekly reporting to the Anadromous Fish Commission that is responsible for in-season management decisions. Biological sampling of the catch is conducted periodically throughout the fishing season in fish processing plants by government inspectors. Measurements taken include fish length, weight, sex and age. Run size and spawning escapement data is estimated using a combination of aerial surveys, ground surveys, and limited sonar counting methods. Aerial surveys are a primary assessment tool throughout Kamchatka due to the numerous rivers and vast area involved. Aerial surveys have been conducted since 1950 almost without interruption (Ostroumov 1964). Flights are made by helicopter from a height of m and by plane from a height of m. Counts are made of live fish, carcasses ( snenka ) and/or redds. Surveys are ideally conducted at least two or three times per year, but single peak or maximum counts are sometimes used. The historical aerial survey program aimed to survey escapements of all Pacific salmon species in all major bodies of water in the region in 600 hours of flight time each year. However, assessment time has been declining over the last decade due to budgetary constraints (Figure 12). Current effort is allocated to high value index areas, and flights are

19 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 18 timed to allow counting of multiple species (Shevlyakov and Maslov 2011). Index areas were established by selecting the most representative areas in the comprehensive historical data set. Figure 12. Aerial salmon stock survey effort (flight hours) in Kamchatka, Counts from index areas are expanded to non-index areas based on historical sampling data. For instance, the Bolshaya is a reference river for the region that includes the Kikhchik, Mukhina, Khomutina, Utka, Mitoga and Bolshaya rivers. Aerial survey effort in western Kamchatka is summarized in Table 13. Approximately 20 flight hours are currently used to conduct aerial surveys of salmon spawning escapements in the Bolshaya River. Table 13. Aerial survey schedule for salmon spawning escapements in western Kamchatka. Location Time period Stock counted Flight time Lks. Nachikinskoe, Golyginskoe, Kurilsky & Late June Early Sockeye Kambalnoe Early July 4 hrs Opala & Golygina rivers Early chum, Chinook Vorovskaya, Kolpakova & other rivers Bolshaya River Kikhchik & Kolpakova rivers Late Sept Oct Coho 4 hrs Late June Early July Early Chinook 5 hrs Late July Early sockeye, Chinook 5 hrs August - 3 rd week Pink, Chum 5 hrs Early September Sockeye, Chum, Coho 5 hrs October - middle Late Chum, Coho 5 hrs Late July Sockeye, Chinook 10 hrs August Pink, Chum, Late 10 hrs

20 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 19 Chinook Late September Sockeye, Chum, Coho 10 hrs July - 2 nd half Sockeye, Chinook 6 hrs Oblukovina & Icha rivers August Pink, Chum, Late Chinook 6 hrs Late September Sockeye, Chum, Coho 10 hrs Tigil & Palana rivers Late Aug Early Sept Pink, Chum, Coho 7 hrs In addition, ground surveys are used to supplement aerial surveys. Counts are made weekly or every other week in each of the Bolshaya, Opala and Kikhchik rivers. Ground surveys also include smaller streams not included in aerial surveys. Biological samples are collected concurrently by beach seine. Fishing associations and several fishing companies currently help support the stock assessment program by providing food, accommodation and transportation for survey crews. Remote escapement estimation methods being evaluated as alternatives include hydroacoustic methods and photo and video recording. Similar equipment has been used in eastern Kamchatka (Degtev et al. 2012) and Alaska. Hydroacoustic equipment was tested in the Kikhchik River in 2013 for coho salmon, but effectiveness was limited due to an unseasonal flood. Reference Points Optimum escapement objectives are established by KamchatNIRO for most salmon species and management area based on analysis of historical production patterns. In most cases, this involves stock-recruitment analysis where comparisons of numbers of progeny vs. parents (for example using Sheppards model) are used to calculate spawning escapements that produce maximum levels of sustained yield. Species summaries in this report included a number of examples of these stock-recruitment analyses. In most cases, stock-recruitment analyses were based on aggregate run reconstructions for multiple rivers across western Kamchatka. This was the case for pink and coho salmon. It is possible to define river specific spawning targets by apportioning the totals based on relative population sizes in the various areas, however it is not clear if this is actually done. It is clear that biologists fly individual rivers during the fishing season to assess relative spawning densities for in-season management purposes (E.A. Shevlyakov, personal communication, July 28, 2014). Formal limit reference points are not used in management of salmon fisheries in Russia. Management Strategy For management purposes, the Kamchatka peninsula coastal zone is subdivided into several management units (six in the Western Kamchatka coast). Each management unit contains a number of fishing parcels. Preseason run forecasts are made for each salmon species by the Fisheries Research Institute (KamchatNIRO). The fishery management agency (FAR) approves a recommended annual catch for each fishery subzone based on this forecast. The pre-season forecast is currently used primarily for planning purposes and to establish quotas for some noncommercial fisheries. The forecast was historically used to establish total allowable catches and quotas for fishing companies. However, the quota system has been replaced with an Olympic system where fishing companies operate in designated areas and periods and are allowed to harvest fish freely while the fishery is open, as opposed to being limited by a specific allocation. Harvest quotas are still established for the fishery as a whole in each river, but these quotas can be adjusted in-season based on commercial catch and escapement data. The fishery is managed in-season with time and area openings and closures based on catch, biological characteristics of the catch, run size and escapement information. The timing and frequency of escapement surveys may not be sufficient to accurately manage the

21 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 20 fishery in-season, but the escapement data are used to assess management performance at the end of the season each year (E.A. Shevlyakov, personal communication, July 28, 2014). A primary means of controlling harvest in freshwater is through the use of passing days when fishing with beach seines is prohibited. On larger rivers, passing days are managed by river zone (area closures are staggered) because the fishery is spread over a large area through which fish need to pass. In smaller rivers, fishing areas are more concentrated, so passing days are typically applied to the entire river. For instance, there are typically two passing days per week on the Opala River, where only three users are concentrated in the lower river. Areas and dates that sea nets can be fished are also regulated. Regulations may take the form of temporary closures where leads and traps are tied up to allow fish to pass, or season-long closures where nets are removed. Sea nets are very effective and can take up to 90% of the catch if unregulated. The majority of sea nets are typically fished only during even years when the dominant cohort of pink salmon is returning. During large pink salmon runs, the potential harvest exceeds the capacity of the fish processing plants, and so fishing companies voluntarily reduce their fishing time even when the fishery is open. In this case, harvest rates are effectively reduced by capacity limitations even when passing days are cancelled due to large escapements. Escapements of other salmon species may benefit in large pink salmon years due to this effect. However, excessive pink salmon escapements are believed to have a negative impact on chum salmon production due to oxygen depletion resulting from decaying carcasses and fungal infections (Krokhin and Krogius 1937, Shevlyakov and Zavarina 2004). 3.4 Principle Two: Ecosystem background Retained Species For the purposes of this assessment, retained species are defined as those that provide a commercial value significant enough to warrant processing and sale (and thus an economic incentive for capture). Other species that are not typically processed for commercial value are treated as bycatch. Some bycatch species are released at fishing sites, and additional sorting occurs at the processing plants. In addition to pink, chum, sockeye and coho salmon, the primary species retained and processed by the fishery are char species. No other species is classified as a retained species for this assessment. Char Two species of char (kunscha) are associated with this fishery: Dolly varden (Salvelinus malma) and white-spotted (S. leucomaensis). Arctic char S. alpinus malma does not occur in the fishery area but is present in some other parts of Kamchatka according to Leman and Esin (2008). Char are widely distributed and abundant throughout the Kamchatka region. Life history variation of these species is diverse and includes anadromous and resident individuals. Char are caught throughout the fishing season, but numbers vary by month. Char generally move upstream following in-migrating coho salmon during late summer and return back downstream along with the juvenile salmon outmigration in spring. Char abundance throughout the region is believed to be increasing. Char are retained during commercial salmon seasons and sold (Figure 13). The proportion of char in the total salmon harvest varies from year to year due to differences in pink salmon abundance between even and odd year runs (Figure 14). The proportion also varies from

22 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 21 river to river but does not exceed 3% of the total catch in any river on average (Shevlyakov 2014). Figure 13. Catch of char (mt) and percent of the total commercial catch in the Golygina and Koshegochek Rivers, 2004 to Figure 14. Char catch as a percent of the total commercial catch in the Vorovskaya, Kol, Opala, and Ozernaya Rivers, 1994 to Char catch data was not available for every year and river Bycatch Species There is no official reporting of bycatch such as cod, flounder, silver smelt and birds in these fisheries (Shevlyakov 2014). It is believed that the bycatch of these species is small or nonexistent, representing a negligible portion of the commercial harvest. Flounders and jellyfish are the most commonly observed bycatch species in the marine trap nets, and smaller flounder may be caught in beach seines. KamchatNIRO reports that bycatch species are typically released alive at the capture site (Shevlyakov 2014). A bycatch monitoring study was conducted in the Ozernaya sockeye fishery in 2011 and supports the claim that bycatch represents a negligible portion of the commercial catch (Table 2) (MRAG 2012). However, it was reported that trap net and seine fishers generally keep the entire catch of all target and non-target species alive until it gets loaded into boats

23 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 22 or trucks for delivery to the processor. Fishers typically don t handle fish directly since the catch is dipped or brailed from the trap or seine; however, an attempt is made to remove bycatch species while the catch is removed from the nets. Fishers might brail only commercially-important species, while leaving more bottom-oriented bycatch species (like flatfish) behind until they are ready to empty the net completely. If discarded, flatfish and cottids probably stay alive because they are very resistant to handling. Table 2. Bycatch reported for marine and river fishing site samples at the Vityaz-Avto Ozernaya processing plant (taken from MRAG 2012). Fishing area Totals Species Marine River Number % Number of net days Starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) % Japanese sandfish (Arctoscopus japonicas) % Sculpin (Melletes papilio) % Rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata) % Longhead dab (Limanda proboscidea) % Fish/sample Other species that may occasionally be caught in the fishery but which may not be retained include Chinook and masu salmon. Chinook salmon Commercial fishing for Chinook salmon has been closed in the fishery area since Commercial fishing of Chinook salmon was also significantly reduced in years prior to 2010, and in some years (2000, 2006, 2008) it was totally absent. Current commercial fishing seasons are timed to minimize Chinook harvest, and even minor catches of Chinook in the commercial fishery may result in closure of the fishing area. Management aims to reserve Chinook salmon for sports and traditional fishing. The sport fishery is very popular. Allocations are small and cumulatively account for mt. Chinook salmon production in Asia is primarily limited to the Kamchatka peninsula where significant populations may be found in large rivers of the western and eastern coasts. Although Chinook spawn in nearly all the rivers of the Western coast, only the Bolshaya River has a significant population. In , an average of about 62% of the entire Western Coast Chinook salmon catch came from this river. Moderate runs occur in the Opala and Vorovskaya Rivers. Western Kamchatka Chinook typically average kg in size but may reach 20 to 30 kg. These Chinook return to freshwater from May through July and spawn in July and August. In the Opala River the beginning of the Chinook salmon fishing season historically occurred from June 25 to July 20 with maximum catches in the middle of July. Spawning occurs in large rivers and streams. Adults typically return to spawn at 3 to 5 years of age after 2 to 4 years at sea. Predominate ages are 1.3, 1.4 and 1.2, accounting for 41, 28 and 20% of the return respectively. Age composition has shifted since the 1990s with fewer older fish (5+ 6+) in the run. All adults die after spawning. Juvenile Chinook salmon generally rear in streams for one year, but some individuals may spend from a few months to three years in freshwater before emigrating. Average size is typically greater in the early portion of the spawning migration because the proportion of females in catches is larger, and females are usually larger in size than males. Harvests, run sizes and escapements of Bolshaya and Vorovskaya Chinook salmon have declined substantially over the last 20 years. Optimum escapement levels of 20 to 30 thousand fish have not be achieved on the Bolshaya in over a decade. Significant levels of illegal harvest on the Bolshaya have apparently exacerbated the decline of this stock. Similarly, Chinook escapements have been declining in the Vorovskaya River over the last decade. Sport and traditional fishing pressure for Chinook salmon has been high in these

24 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 23 areas and is increasing. Spawning escapements in recent years have averaged about 4 thousand fish which is thought to be insufficient for maintaining optimum production and the growing demand for licenses. KamchatNIRO estimates that the optimal escapement for the Vorovskaya River is in the range of 8-12 thousand spawners. Declines in Chinook salmon abundance have been documented throughout the northern Pacific and are apparently related to unfavorable environmental conditions in the ocean. In contrast, Chinook stocks in other western Kamchatka Rivers have been increasing or maintaining high production in recent years. In recent years, a significant increase of spawning escapement has been observed in the Kol, Kikhchik and Pymta Rivers. The Chinook escapement in the Opala River has been consistently high over the past 10 years. Because of this, KamchatNIRO expects Chinook salmon stocks to rebound in the next few years (Shevlyakov 2014). Chinook status is somewhat better in the Opala and Kikhchik rivers where optimum spawning escapement numbers are 5,000 to 7,500 and 3,000 to 5,000, respectively. Chinook salmon habitat is very limited in the Ozernaya River and is insufficient to support a significant population. Masu salmon Masu (cherry) salmon occur in some southern Kamchatka streams which represent the northern distribution of their range. The Opala River supports a small population of masu salmon. Adults typically return to freshwater from March through May at three or four years of age and spend the summer in freshwater before moving to headwaters to spawn in September and October (Groot and Margolis 1991). In western Kamchatka streams, adults average about 46 cm in length and 1.4 kg in weight. Fecundity averages about 2,200 eggs. Spawning occurs primarily in groundwater and spring fed streams or brooks. Adults feed actively while in freshwater. Juveniles typically rear in freshwater for one year before migrating to the sea in the spring and early summer. Due to their run timing in spring, masu salmon are not harvested in significant numbers by the commercial salmon fishery ETP Species For the purposes of this assessment, endangered, threatened, or protected (ETP) species are those that are recognized by national legislation and/or binding international agreements (e.g., CITES) to which jurisdictions controlling the assessed fishery are party. In this case, national legislation provides for protection of ETP species identified in the Russian Federation Red Data Book, also known simply as the Red Book. The Red Book is based largely on the International Union for Protection of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), which formally designates protected species subject to enhanced regulatory protection. Related natural conservation legislation was adopted in 1980s-1990s, including laws for protection of natural environment and fauna, natural (wildlife) areas under special protection, along with a number of various decrees by the Russian Federation Government. These regulations established conservation priorities for the Red Book s rare fauna and flora species and liabilities for damage inflicted to the species and their habitats. The only red listed species present in this area are steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus). These as well as a number of other fish, marine mammals and birds are also discussed briefly below. Although no ongoing observer program exists for the fisheries, federal scientists, managers, and inspectors regularly visit the fishing sites and processing plants throughout the season. Over the course of many years of fishing operations, none of these species have been observed to sustain adverse impacts from the fishery. The fishing authorities have determined that the fishery has such low impacts that it requires no specific data collection on interactions with ETP species. Steelhead Steelhead are a sea-run form of rainbow trout present in large rivers of Western Kamchatka from the Bolshaya River and northward. Both resident and anadromous (sea run) life histories occur in the same systems and are demographically and genetically related.

25 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 24 Steelhead may reach kg but are typically half that size. Kamchatka steelhead enter rivers in September-November, i.e. later than main fishing season of Pacific salmon. Steelhead spawn in May and June after overwintering in freshwater. Spawning may be broadly distributed in rivers and streams. Unlike salmon, not all steelhead adults die after spawning. Adults may reach twelve years of age and spawn repeatedly over their lifespan. Juvenile steelhead may rear in streams for one to several years before migrating to sea. Steelhead are largely protected from significant harvest in the commercial salmon fishery because run timing of adults falls outside the fishing period. Emigration timing of adults and juveniles occurs prior to beginning of the fishing season. Marine Mammals and Birds Information on population abundance of Kamchatka marine mammals is well documented in the scientific literature (Burkanov 1986, 1988; Lagerev 1988; Kosygin et al. 1986). Spotted seals (larga) and sea lions feed largely on fish and are the most likely to be encountered in or around fishing gear. Steller sea lions are included in the Red book of Kamchatka (2006), and hunting them is illegal. This species inhabits the coast of western Kamchatka year-round, but its distribution and abundance changes seasonally. Approximately 2,500 sea lions gather in a rookery on Sivuchiy Cape during winter before dispersing generally northward during the spring and summer. Small groups or individual sea lions are occasionally observed in the fishing area in the summer. Sea lions sometimes enter the traps where they feed on salmon. Large males sometimes damage nets to predate on salmon. Other seals are abundant in the area and are frequently observed around the marine trapnets. The most numerous species in the Russian Far East is spotted seal or larga. This species is found in local waters year-round. Large numbers gather in rookeries along the western coast of Kamchatka from February until mid-march. These seals concentrate near estuaries and capes to feed almost exclusively on salmon during salmon spawning runs. There are no official statistics on the impact of commercial fishing on larga seals, but restricted catches are allocated to local peoples to maintain their traditional way of life. However, seals frequently enter marine net traps, eat or damage fish, and then freely leave the nets. Beach seines do not normally affect marine mammals. Take of seals and sea lions is illegal as is the possession of firearms on boats. However, seals are regarded as a nuisance by fishers. KamchatNIRO scientists report that fisherman drive off sea lions from nets by making noise. Firearms may be carried on vessels for personal use and to scare bears. While shooting seals is illegal, it is reportedly an occasional practice. Other animals present in the area include killer whales, white whales, sea eagles, and cormorants. There was no mention by government officials or fishing industry representatives of other sea mammals or sea birds captured or killed by fishing gear. The passive nature of the fixed trap net gear substantially reduces opportunities for encounters with marine mammals or birds. Beach seines do not normally encounter or affect marine mammals Habitats Fishing activities with traps and beach seines do not have a significant long-term impact on habitat. Any effects of stationary trap construction or operation are localized and temporary. The traps are anchored to the sea bottom with large plastic bags full of sand. Permits are required to dig sand, and anchors are removed at the end of the fishing season. Net leads and wings are weighted to rest on the bottom, but trap boxes constructed on steel frames are constructed on floats and do not contact the bottom where mechanical damage to benthic organisms might occur. KamchatNIRO scientists report no harmful effect on bottom flora or fauna. Assessments of this gear in other regions (e.g. Iturup and Sakhalin) have also shown minimal impacts.

26 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 25 Beach seines used in the river and estuary may be dragged along the bottom, but any impact is minor and temporary. The river bottom is comprised of gravel and cobble that is regularly redistributed by flood flows. It is not known whether beach seine sites are physically graded during low water as has sometimes been the case in the Ozernaya River Ecosystem Structure and Function The salmon life cycle encompasses a vast ecosystem including natal rivers and lakes, the near-shore ocean, and the high seas of the North Pacific Ocean. Salmon migrate across large areas of the North Pacific Ocean that provide major feeding habitats for various salmon stocks originating from Asia and North America (Myers et al. 2009; Urawa et al. 2009). Juveniles gain over 90% of their biomass in the ocean before maturing and returning to freshwater to spawn (Groot and Margolis 1991). Ecosystem effects of salmon harvest and enhancement can be significant. Marine-derived nutrients from salmon carcasses can have a significant impact on freshwater communities as well as communities in the interface between freshwater and terrestrial environments. The flux of salmon biomass entering fresh water from the ocean can be massive (Gende et al. 2002). It is known that these nutrients form a base for the development of zooplankton in coastal areas, which serve as food for young salmon. In the case of sockeye salmon, these nutrients may also help feed juveniles rearing in lakes. Russian scientists estimate that each pink salmon carcass is 0.5% organic phosphorus (Kizevetter 1971), and in dominant pink salmon years, carcasses provide a large amount of nutrients available to the ecosystem. For example, KamchatNIRO has estimated that the pink salmon run in 1994 contributed about 110,000 mt of carcasses or 550 mt of organic phosphorus to the ecosystem (Shevlyakov 2014). Some dead fish drift to the sea, but the rest remain in the floodplains of the rivers, where within a year carcasses are transformed into organic material that is incorporated into the food chain. Removal of Pacific salmon by the fishery has consequences for river ecosystems. The relationships between salmon and the population dynamics of their terrestrial predators have been well documented (Gende et al. 2002). Potentially, the most serious of them is the reduction of food for predatory animals and birds, which feed on spawning salmon to a considerable extent. The following animals depend on salmon in their diet: brown bear (Ursus arctos), Kamchatka fox (Vulpes vulpes), sable (Martes zibellina), ermine (Mustela erminea kaneii), mink (Mustela vison), Steller s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), Pacific seagull (Larus schistisagus), whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus) and many other mammals and birds. On the other hand, active fishery management might also help stabilize returns by reducing the occurrence of excessively large escapements that can depress future returns under some conditions. 3.5 Principle Three: Management system background The current Russian Federation became independent of the former Soviet Union in As a federation, it consists of numerous jurisdictions with various levels of autonomy. The legal system is based on civil law system with judicial review of legislative acts. The fisheries management consists of complex levels of authority for management and research, with final decisions centralized in Moscow. The Federal Agency for Fisheries is governed directly by the government of Russia and is the ultimate authority, reviewing recommendations passed up from the local level and passing directives back, as described in the next section Management Structure Management of Kamchatka salmon fisheries is administered by Federal and Regional governmental agencies. The Kamchatka Krai, which includes Kamchatka Oblast and Koryak Autonomous Okrug, is the subject of the Russian Federation and is a part of the Far Eastern Federal Region (Okrug). The Krai is under the direction and control of the Government of the

27 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 26 Russian Federation. Russian fisheries are managed and controlled by the Federal Fishery Agency (FAR) of the Russian Federation, which is located in Moscow and also represented by a local office in Kamchatka. Operational management of all activities is performed by the Governor of the Kamchatsky Krai. Federal governance Federal Fishery Agency The Federal Fishery Agency (FAR) (Федеральное агентство по рыболовству or Federal'noe Agentstvo po Rybolovstvu, is an executive authority of the Russian Federation, established by the Presidential Decree No. 724 issued , by converting the pre-existing Russian Federation State Committee for Fisheries (Rossrybolovstvo). The President issued the Decree No. 863 on , which established that FAR reports directly to the Government of Russian Federation. The Russian Federation Government Decree of No. 444 approved the current Regulations governing the FAR s operations. FAR interacts with various agencies at the federal level while controlling its territorial departments. It is responsible for oversight of departments under its jurisdiction, defining the rules and the annual Total Available Catches (TAC) or recommended catches (for those species which are not under TAC regulation, like Pacific salmon), and also defining the areas of fisheries. FAR also conducts communication and coordination with foreign government agencies, international committees and international organizations on of fisheries, policy and technical programs related to the application of innovative technologies in the fisheries complex, and preparation of federal and agency-level reports on the fishing industry. The head of FAR supervises deputies and departments, which are responsible for the management of the fishing fleet, protection and rational use of resources, and reproduction of marine resources and their habitats. FAR is also responsible for monitoring water resources and stocks of commercial species, and for controlling the distribution of TAC/recommended catch among the users. FAR also provides social services relating to fisheries, conducts research and engineering projects, directs federal fishing vessel and fishing ports, and controls the activity of artificial breeding. Northeastern Territorial Administration of FAR FAR has territorial departments in all regions of the Russian Federation, which have been created in order to accelerate the implementation of many of the functions of the FAR on the level of Russian Federation subjects. The Northeastern Territorial Administration of FAR (SVTU) (Северо-восточное территоральное управление ФАР, СВТУ) is the local management and enforcement arm of FAR for the Kamchatka Krai and is located in the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. SVTU has final approval of fishing concessions and inseason fishery management regulation actions (opening and closing fisheries). They give fishing companies permission to harvest, monitor fishing companies and processors to ensure regulation compliance, and patrol streams to reduce poaching activities. SVTU posts all approved management decisions of the Anadromous Fish Commission on its website. Federal Fishery Research Institutes FAR includes a network of scientific research organizations conducting both applied and basic research in accordance with the program titled Scientific and engineering support of Russia s fishing industry. The Federal Agency of Fisheries has 15 scientific-research organizations under its direct supervision, nine of which are marine scientific research institutes; they are assigned to appropriate regions on a legal basis and are responsible for the state-level monitoring of stocks and additional resources, and for rational and efficient usage of the bio-resources. The above-mentioned scientific research institutes have a legal status as federal state unitary enterprises. Their activities are regulated by the charters

28 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 27 approved by FAR. The All-Russia Institute for Fisheries Research and Oceanography VNIRO (Всероссийский научно-исследовательский институт Рыбололовства и Океанографии, ВНИРО or Vserossiiskii nauchno-issledovatelskii institute rybolovstva i okeanografii) of Moscow is the head institute of fishery related research. Research for the Pacific aquatic biological resources is conducted by the following scientific regional research institutes: TINRO-Center (Vladivostok) (Тихоокеанский научноисследовательский институт Рыбололовства и Океанографии, ТИНРО-Центр or Tikhookeanslii nauchno-issledovatelskii institute rybolovstva I okeanografii) with branches in Khabarovsk and Anadyr; MagadanNIRO (Magadan) (Магаданский научноисследовательский институт рыбного хозяйства и океанографии, МагаданНИРО or Magadanskii nauchno-issledovatelskii institute rybolovstva I okeanografii), KamchatNIRO (Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky) (Камчатский научно-исследовательский институт рыбного хозяйства и океанографии, KamchatNIRO or Kamchatskii nauchno-issledovatelskii institute rybolovstva I okeanografii) and SakhNIRO (Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk) (Сахалинский научно-исследовательский институт рыбного хозяйства и океанографии, СахНИРО or Sakhalinskii nauchno-issledovatelskii institute rybolovstva I okeanografii). Study of aquatic biological resources of the Arctic, northern Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Black Sea, Azov Sea, Caspian Sea and internal freshwater bodies is performed by other territorial institutions. KamchatNIRO conducts research of marine and freshwater resources in the Kamchatka region to monitor the status of commercial species, including salmon, and prepares annual forecasts of commercial species and proposes potential catch volumes. Each October, KamchatNIRO forecasts for recommended catches of salmon for the next season. The forecast is developed based on the number of salmon required for optimal filling of the spawning grounds (i.e. optimal spawning escapement), the number of juveniles produced in natural spawning grounds (based on sampling of juveniles in the sea and their survivorship there), and numbers of juveniles released from hatcheries (taking into account their survivorship in the sea). Annual forecasts by KamchatNIRO of potential catch are sent to TINRO-Centre where they are approved in the special Salmon Scientific Council and then sent to VNIRO, which examines and approves the forecast from the Scientific Council. Following the adoption of the forecast, VNIRO sends it to the FAR for approval. Approved forecasts are the basis for the fishery management in the region. Northeastern Rybvod (SevvostRybvod) SevvostRybvod (Севвострыбвод) is directly managed by the Federal Fisheries Agency. SevvostRybvod does not occupy as important a role in management of salmon fisheries in Kamchatka as, for instance, the analogous structure, SakhRybvod, in Sakhalin. This is because artificial reproduction in Kamchatka is not as significant as in the Sakhalin-Kuril region. SVTU controls hatchery permitting and management in the Kamchatka Krai. Sevvostrybvod operates five hatcheries in Kamchatka, including two on the Western coast of the Peninsula (Bolshaya river basin). The Federal Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation encompassing the Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Ecology & Natural Resources Use (Rosprirodnadzor; Росприроднадзор) is the federal agency responsible for enforcement and control. It is also responsible for State supervision of usage and protection of water bodies, wildlife and their habitats, federal level wildlife preserves, and environmental protection status. Federal Agency for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Supervision (Rosselkhoznadzor) Rosselkhoznadzor (Россельхознадзор) is the Federal enforcement and control agency for biological resources under the Russian Ministry of Agriculture. Responsibilities include accounting for and analysis of violations of technical regulations and other regulatory documentation; supervision of compliance with Russian Federation laws by the state

29 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 28 agencies, local government, and the public; supervision of marine fishery ports and vessels, and administration of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. In total, activities of any enterprise operating on rivers are controlled by 14 different State commissions, but their role is not as significant as those described above. Public Council for FAR FAR Policies and Regulation of fisheries are created by a consultative process. In 2008, FAR created the Public Council (PC) (Общественный совет по рыболовству), which facilitates public discussions of accepted and proposed regulations. The PC is composed of a wide range of fishermen associations, environmental institutions, environmental services, the World Wildlife Fund and other interested community organizations. In the consultative process the PC is joined by government agencies and territorial Association of Fishermen, fisheries departments and offices of subjects of Russian Federation. The government policies are finally adopted and implemented following discussions between the PC and the interested parties on the proposed policies. Far East Scientific Commercial Fisheries Council (FESFC) The Far East Scientific Commercial Fisheries Council, FESFC (Дальневосточный Рыбопромысловый Совет) is an independent council that includes representatives from the Federal Fisheries Agency, scientific research institutes, non-profit commercial associations of commercial fisheries, minority peoples of the North and Russian Far East, and the union of the pool of professional fishers. FESFC personnel are approved by FAR based on the recommendations of the Russian Federation territorial subjects. However, half of the FESFC members must be from scientific, conservation-oriented, or natural resource agencies. The council has the authority to engage other competent authorities or interested stakeholders as needed, contingent upon votes of approval from its members. Meetings are held in Vladivostok at least twice a year. The FESFC meetings can be attended by all interested parties, where they may express their opinions and participate in the discussions. Central to the responsibilities of the FESFC is the compilation of scientific information concerning the management of marine bio-resources in the Russian Far East for submission to the Federal Fisheries Agency for final approval. In addition, the FESFC reviews and submits recommendations on fisheries regulations, construction of fish hatcheries, and the distribution of quota among its subjects. Regional Governance The current management system is regulated by the federal law On Fishery and Conservation of Aquatic Biological Resources, which was amended in 2008 to reflect changes regarding harvest of anadromous fish in inland waters and territorial seas of the Russian Federation (Article 291 of the Federal Law of December FZ). This law gave the government the authority to assign fishery sections to individual lease holders for up to 20 years, and salmon fisheries management was entrusted to the regional executive authorities. The current system is regionally-based and is much more responsive and effective than the previous system, which was based on Total Allowable Catch allocations and centralized fishery management decisions in Moscow. The current system is widely viewed as an improvement for fisheries management because it can react more quickly to changes in run strength. In addition, fishing companies no longer have an incentive to under-report their catch because management is based on achieving spawning escapement rather than on the quota limitations of a TAC. Ministry of Fisheries of Kamchatka Krai Under the new management system, the regional government has responsibility for inseason management of fisheries, although SVTU has final approval. The Kamchatka Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for establishing and operating the Commission on the

30 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 29 Regulation of Harvesting (catch) of Anadromous Fishes (AFC) and providing information on the fishery (such as catch and escapement data collected by KamchatNIRO). Commission on the Regulation of Harvesting Anadromous Fishes (Anadromous Fish Commission) The AFC (Комиссия по регулированию вылова (добычи) анадромных видов рыб) has the responsibility for the distribution of recommended yearly catch of salmon among users and identifying areas of commercial, recreational, and traditional (indigenous) fishing. The AFC was established by regional authorities in 2008 to implement management changes required under new federal regulations. The AFC is chaired by the regional governor and consists of stakeholders from government, industry and other interested parties. These include representatives from Federal executive bodies, including the federal security and environmental protection authorities, as well as representatives of the regional government, federal government, public associations, consolidations of legal entities (associations and unions), and scientific organizations. AFC members are suggested by the Governor and approved by the Territorial Administration of FAR (SVTU). Upon the request of companies, the AFC establishes the recommended catch for a management unit area and accepts applications from the users for specific catch volumes, each of which cannot exceed the total recommended catch for the management unit. The recommended catch is authorized by FAR and accounts for optimal spawning escapements broodstock requirements for hatcheries, and quotas for sport and traditional fishing. The AFC meets regularly and makes in-season fishery management decisions. Based on reports of escapements to the spawning grounds, the AFC makes operational decisions on the time and duration of fishing. For example, the AFC may close the fishery when escapements appear insufficient, or increase quotas to harvest excess spawners and prevent overfilling of spawning grounds. The AFC s decisions are made through discussions and consultations with stakeholders. All meetings are open to the public. All decisions of AFCs on fisheries management are subject to final approval by the Territorial Administrations of FAR. Meeting minutes and decisions are posted on the Territorial Administration website ( Preseason Management The local research fisheries institution, KamchatNIRO, plays a key role in producing fishery forecasts. The forecasts use a regression model of parental abundance versus and numbers of progeny produced using Ricker, Sheppard and other models. The basis for forecasts are data obtained by commercial fishery observers, surveys of number of spawners entering rivers (visual surveys conducted by foot or aerial methods, hydroacoustic techniques, markrecapture, etc.), data on downstream migration of juveniles, and data from trawls of outmigrating juveniles (Figure 15). Catch data are available for the Bolshaya River starting in In 1945, a KamchatNIRO research station began operating on the Bystraya River, which is a tributary of the Bolshaya River. This year marked the beginning of regular fisheryoriented research in this area. In general, most of data used for forecasts is available starting in 1957.

31 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 30 Figure 15. Main stages of issuing of the forecast (recommended catch) of Pacific salmon (Rassadnikov 2006). The recommended catch is calculated for each season as the difference between the estimated total number of returning fish and the target number of spawners, taking into account the total area of spawning grounds in the district and the optimal density of spawners, which varies by river and species. At higher than optimal spawning densities, there may be declines in the number of recruits per spawner due to density dependent effects such as resorption of gonads and destruction of previously constructed redds by fish spawning later in the season (redd superimposition). One such overescapement event occurred in northwestern Kamchatka in 1983, when a huge number of spawners entered the rivers because fishing companies had insufficient capacity to substantially reduce the escapement. As a result, mortality of progeny was very high, and the next generation had low returns. Since this period, odd-year pink salmon have remained at low abundances, and even-year pink salmon have been dominant. Given that dynamics of populations in the same geographic area are usually synchronous, several reference populations are studied in greater detail at fish monitoring stations, and then the forecast for the reference population is extrapolated to the entire area. One of these stations is located on the Bolshaya River. In the downstream part of the Opala and Kikhchik Rivers there are seasonal stations where KamchatNIRO collects data from commercial catches. The proportion of the total catch produced by each population in the area is considered constant and is determined based on long-term fisheries and research data. The initial forecast provided by the local research team must be approved on several different levels (Figure 16). First, the Research Council of KamchatNIRO approves the forecast. Then KamchatNIRO sends the annual forecast to the TINRO-Center, which summarizes the forecasts from all regional NIROs (Research Institutes for Fishery and Oceanography). Forecasts are discussed by the Far East Salmon Council (FESC) within the TINRO-center, which coordinates salmon research and forecasts in the Far Eastern basin. FESC decides the final forecast of predicted catch and sends the forecast to VNIRO. Due to rejection of a TAC-based management system, approval by the State Ecological Expertise has been excluded from the process. This makes the process more quick and transparent but potentially less precautionary. During the period of approval, discussion with

32 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 31 stakeholders takes place with active participation of representatives from fisherycompanies, local administrations and federal ministries. On the basis of this forecast, FAR approves the recommended annual catch for each fishery subzone. The pre-season forecast is used primarily for planning purposes and may also be used to establish quotas for some noncommercial fisheries. Figure 16. Procedures for issuing the Pacific salmon recommended catch (Rassadnikov 2006). Accuracy of salmon run forecasts in Western Kamchatka varies among species. Between 1993 and 2009, the post-season run estimates on average were within 73% of the pink, 16% for chum, 14% for sockeye, 34% for coho and 101% for Chinook salmon forecasts In-season process Each coastal set net or river beach seine is served by a crew of fishermen. The crew leaders report directly to the company s directors. Each crew keeps a fishing log according to the template specified by the FAR. This log records: coordinates of the fishing parcel; daily catch (in mt); species composition and by-catch; Each company submits information on the catch volumes and species composition to SVTU daily, and the data are then summarized and reported to the AFC. The AFC opens and closes fishery times and areas based on estimates of harvest and escapement relative to expectations and objectives (Figure 17). To allow a sufficient number of fish to enter the spawning grounds, the management system closes fishing on certain days (passing days). This system creates a moving window for fish to safely approach the spawning grounds (Shevlyakov et al. 2011). Passing days are used regularly in the river (typically two to three days per week). If the spawning escapement is not sufficient, additional passing days are implemented as needed. Decisions on when to open and close the fishery are the responsibility of AFC and are based on the recommendations of KamchatNIRO.

33 Western Kamchatka Pre-Assessment Report page 32 Figure 17. In-season management of the Pacific salmon fishery. The approved annual recommended catch may be adjusted by AFC based on in-season information on the number of the salmon approaching the fishing areas and spawning grounds. In order to facilitate adjustments, KamchatNIRO monitors the dynamics of catches and biological indicators of salmon in the main fishing areas, migration routes and spawning areas. The monitoring results are used for developing operational guidelines on salmon fishing. Since 2009 regulations of salmon fisheries were changed not only by the introduction of 20- year leases for fishing parcels, but also by the switch from a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) system to an Olympic system of management. As a result, fisheries management became less complicated, and more decisions are being made at the local level. In Kamchatka, the Olympic system was first introduced in The main principles of this management model are the following: determination of each management unit as group of geographically proximate fishing parcels (usually including both sea and river parcels) inhabited by salmon populations with similar biology; self-dependence of users in terms of use their gear. In particular, they are not obliged to use all of their gear depending on the situation; user-defined quotas, which may be as large as the total quota for the management unit determined by AFC. The companies report their catches to SVTU on daily basis. After the sum of catches by all fishing companies reaches the total quota for the management unit, tfishing is terminated unless AFC decides to increase the quota. The main advantage of this management system is the opportunity for users to plan their own fishing operations and freely compete with each other. Moreover, it reduces incentives to under-report catches since users are not limited by individual quotas. Disadvantages are possible exceeding of the quota allocated for the management unit. Because individual companies can have permits to catch up to the total quota, it is the