Doc Interpretation and Implementation of the Convention

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1 Doc Interpretation and Implementation of the Convention BIOLOGICAL AND TRADE STATUS OF SHARKS 1. This document is submitted by the Secretariat on behalf of the Animals Committee. Background 2. The ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (Fort Lauderdale, 1994) adopted Resolution Conf on the Status of International Trade in Shark Species (Annex 1) in response to growing concern that some shark species are being over-exploited to meet an international demand for sharks and shark products. Resolution Conf. 9.17, inter alia, directs the Animals Committee to review information on the biological and trade status of sharks and to prepare a discussion paper for consideration at the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties. 3. This report has been compiled from information contained in the following working documents submitted to the Animals Committee, and from other sources: 4. An Overview of Impacts on the Biological Status of Sharks United States of America (Doc. AC.13.6 & Annex) 5. CPUE Trend and Species Composition of Pelagic Sharks Caught by Japanese Research and Training Vessels in the Pacific Ocean Japan (Doc. AC & Annex) 6. The Implications of Biology for the Conservation and Management of Sharks IUCN (Doc. AC ) 7. The Utilisation and Trade of Sharks and Related Species TRAFFIC Network [Doc. AC , document which is a summary of detailed information contained in a report by Rose (1996)] 8. Implementation of Resolution Conf on Sharks: Activities Undertaken by FAO (Doc. AC ) 9. Additional information has been drawn from two reports prepared for the CITES Secretariat by the Scientific Adviser to the Delegation of Panama (Palacio, 1995 a,b). The report also summarises information provided by Parties in response to Secretariat Notification to Parties No. 884 of 6 November Copies of these documents, which contain more detailed information, are available on request from the CITES Secretariat. Biological Characteristics of Sharks 10. Sharks, which comprise approximately 400 currently recognized species, are included among the nearly 1100 species of chondrichthyan, or cartilaginous fishes. The term 'shark' is often used generically to refer to all chondrichthyan or cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras). In this report, 'sharks' will be used in this sense unless otherwise stated. 11. Sharks occupy a wide range of aquatic habitats, including freshwater riverine and lake systems, inshore estuaries and lagoons, waters, open sea and the deep ocean. Many species are characterized by restricted distributions (e.g. 54 per cent of the Australian chondrichthyan fauna is endemic (Last & Stevens, 1994). However, some of the larger and more important fisheries species are widely distributed and exhibit extensive movements occurring principally in inshore waters, along the continental shelf and slopes and pelagic waters. Sharks are predominantly predatory, however, some species are also scavengers, while some of the largest species (whale, basking and megamouth sharks) are filter-feeders of plankton and small fish. 12. The large predatory sharks are apex predators occupying the tops of marine food chains. Populations of these species are generally less abundant relative to those of most teleost (bony) fishes. Information on the life history and reproductive biology of sharks is only available for the few species that are subject to important fisheries. 13. Collection of these data for species that are restricted to deep-water habitats or those that are only sampled at certain times of year or during certain stages in the life cycle is logistically difficult and expensive. 14. In general sharks can be characterized by the following life-history features: slow growth late maturity low fecundity and productivity high natural survivorship for all age classes long life. 15. Sharks are generally long-lived (mostly years and up to 70 years in the case of the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias) animals and take a long time to reach maturity. Small species such as the Australian sharpnose shark Rhizoprionondon taylori attain maturity in one year (Simpfendorfer, 1993), while others like the dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus require a period of years (Natanson et al., 1995). However animals of most species cannot be aged reliably without the need for extensive research. As apex predators with few natural enemies, sharks need to produce only a few young capable of reaching maturity in order to maintain stable populations in undisturbed systems. Moreover, they are vulnerable to severe ecological disruption such as excessive predation. 16. Annexes 2a and 2b summarize the life-history and ecological characteristics respectively for about 40 species of elasmobranchs that are taken in large-scale fisheries or are believed to be important in international trade. In this regard, the absence of species-specific data, particularly for sharks taken as a by-catch of other fisheries and shark products that enter trade, makes it difficult to determine the full range of species involved. Reproduction and Management Constraints 17. The reproductive strategies of most sharks contrast markedly with those employed by all but a few of the teleost fishes that support most of the world s fisheries. Many millions of small eggs are produced annually by large teleost fishes. Under natural conditions, although only very few young survive to maturity, recruitment to the adult population is broadly independent of the size of the spawning stock (IUCN, 1996). 18. There are several modes of reproduction in chondrichthyans, all of which involve considerable maternal investment to produce small numbers of large, fully-developed young. Internal fertilization of relatively few eggs is followed by: 19. Oviparity in which large, leathery eggcases are laid and the young continue to develop and hatch outside the female; 703

2 nes in 1947 (Bonfil, 1994) to a record 730,784 tonnes in 1994 (FAO, 1996). Whereas statistics indicate that landings are increasing in most FAO major fishing areas, the areas where fisheries were developed first are showing declining trends in landings. However, it should be noted that these statistics do not represent the total catch of sharks worldwide, owing to the lack of reporting on sharks taken as by-catch or discarded at sea, as well as on those taken in recreational, artisanal and subsistence fisheries. 27. It is not possible, from FAO statistics, to derive the proportion of the total elasmobranch landings represented by different species of shark. FAO compiles landings data on elasmobranchs, but the statistics are limited by the lack of species-specific data reported by most countries. Increased overall landings for all elasmobranch species over the last fifty years contrasts against a general pattern of decline in landings for individually exploited shark populations. However, these increased landings may be explained as a combination of: 28. increased fishing effort and technology; 29. targeting of by-catch species, such as sharks, as other fishery resources decline; 30. increased use of by-catch, thus increased reporting; 31. increased and/or improved reporting of shark landings by individual countries; 32. expansion of fishing areas by long-range fleets; and 33. development of markets and directed shark fisheries in developed countries. 34. Some shark species may also be declining fisheries resources, as many are vulnerable to overexploitation (Compagno, 1990; Bonfil, 1994). Long life cycles, delayed sexual maturation and low fecundity rates severely limit the level of sustainable harvest for many of these fishes. Furthermore, for most species, little is known of stock structure, abundance or reproductive behaviour. In addition, many species are highly migratory, further complicating management. 35. There are historical examples of targeted shark fisheries that could not be sustained in different parts of the world, such as Galeorhinus galeus (tope, soupfin or school shark) and Alopias vulpinus (common thresher shark) fisheries off California, Cetorhinus maximus (basking shark) off Ireland and Scotland, the Lamna nasus (porbeagle) fishery in the Atlantic Ocean, and the Irish and Scottish- Norwegian Squalus acanthias (spiny dogfish) fishery. 36. The ability to sustain fishing effort depends in part on the fecundity and life-history characteristics of the particular species involved. Shark fisheries have not originated from a search for a suitable target species or population. They have developed in response to market demand for a species. Strongly 'k-selected' species that are currently harvested by commercial fisheries include C. maximus, G. galeus, L. nasus, Carcharhinus plumbeus (sandbar shark), C. obscurus and Squalus acanthias. 20. Ovoviviparity or aplacental viviparity, in which the eggs are retained within the maternal female and embryonic development occurs in the uterus, before a live birth; or 21. Viviparity in which an embryo is attached to a placenta and embryonic development is nourished by the maternal blood supply. 22. Depending on the species, female sharks may bear 1-12 offspring per litter. Atypically, the largest species, the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, has been recorded with 300 embryos. Gestation periods are unknown for most species but range from less than three months to more than 22 months for the ovoviviparous spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias. Although some small sharks reproduce annually (see Annex 2a), many species do not, because mature females have a rest period of one to two years between pregnancies (Branstetter, 1990), and/or because gestation periods exceed 12 months, e.g. sandbar shark, Carcharhinus obscurus (Musick, 1995). 23. In general, species that exhibit a shorter longevity and early age at sexual maturity are likely to have higher productivity and thus to be better able to sustain a commercial fishery, e.g. gummy shark Mustelus antarcticus (Stevens et al., in press). 24. Shark reproductive strategies, developed over some 400 million years, are appropriate and successful in an environment where the principle natural predators are large sharks. However, a 'kselected' life-history strategy imposes limits on reproductive productivity. This characteristic, together with a tendency exhibited by many species of sharks to aggregate by age and sex, renders some species vulnerable to inappropriate management. The potential for shark populations to become depleted through inappropriate management, particularly those species with restricted distributions, is greater than for most teleost fishes. Factors Influencing the Status of Shark Stocks 25. Factors influencing the status of shark stocks include commercial and recreational fisheries capture in bycatch, beach netting, and habitat degradation and loss. The extent to which any one (or combination) of these factors impacts on the wild resource is largely unknown but considered to be highly variable according to species and location. Furthermore, as apex predators, many shark species serve a vital role in marine ecosystems. Over-exploitation of prey species by fisheries may have an adverse impact on sharks along with natural factors including altering predator-prey relationships and environmental changes. The specialized life-history strategies of many species of sharks render them potentially vulnerable to unmanaged fisheries. Fisheries 26. Expanding global fisheries, whether directed or incidental, is a principal factor influencing shark populations. From the fisheries data reported to FAO over the last 15 years, sharks comprised 60 per cent of the world elasmobranch catch (Bonfil, 1994). Reported commercial landings of elasmobranchs (Table 1) grew globally from 201,000 ton- 704

3 By-catch and Discards 37. By-catch is the incidental capture of species in fisheries targeting other species. Incidental take is a major factor in human-caused mortality of sharks (Bonfil, 1994; Rose, 1996). Sharks are caught as by-catch in many commercial fisheries and by most fishing methods (Bonfil, 1994; Rose, 1996). However, the extent of by-catch and discards is poorly documented. Mortality of incidentally caught sharks is thought to have increased as higher prices for fins suggest that a larger proportion of shark bycatch is now utilized (Manire & Gruber, 1990) 38. Few commercial fisheries target migratory oceanic sharks but a number of species form a large bycatch of and high-seas longline and purse seine fisheries directed at tuna and billfish. Preliminary estimates (Stevens, 1997) suggest that approximately 140,000 tonnes of blue shark (Prionace glauca), 50, ,000 tonnes of oceanic whitetip sharks (Carcharhinus longimanus) and 84,000 tonnes of silky shark (C. falciformes), together with smaller quantities of shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) and thresher sharks (Alopias spp.) were caught by high seas fishing fleets operating in the Pacific Ocean during In the late 1980s, high seas fisheries are estimated to have taken 12 million elasmobranchs equalling about 300,000 tonnes as by-catch. Discards from high seas fisheries are thought to account for an additional 230, ,000 tonnes of sharks removed annually from populations (Bonfil, 1994). The estimates of total elasmobranch by-catch in high seas driftnet fisheries between 1989 and 1991 was between 3,280,000 and 4,310,000 sharks and rays. However, high seas driftnet fisheries ended in Bonfil (1994) also estimates that a total of 8.3 million sharks, the equivalent of 232,425 tonnes, were caught as by-catch in longline fisheries during 1994, distributed more or less evenly throughout the globe. 39. Japanese tuna longline research vessels collected data on the stock status of pelagic shark species caught by the longline fishery in and in the central North Pacific. The researchers concluded that the catch rates of major pelagic sharks captured by tuna longline does not indicate any clear change in overall abundance during the period However there was a change in CPUE for individual species, which was thought to be due to changes in depth of gear used (Matsunaga & Nakano, 1996). Nakano (1996), using standardized data from , found no significant trend with time in blue shark catch rates in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans, but noted a 20 per cent decrease in the North Pacific over a period of two decades. 40. By-catch of sharks in both the eastern and western tropical Pacific purse seine fisheries for tuna varies by set method. By-catch of sharks per set is highest in nets set around logs and man-made Fish Aggregating Devices compared to sets around dolphins or schooling fish (Garcia pers. comm., 1996; Anon., 1996a). Most countries do not require reporting of shark by-catch in logbooks, so few by-catch data are incorporated into FAO statistics. Although observer programmes provide the best available information, coverage on the high seas is minimal. Several species of chondrichthyan taken as by-catch and subject to trade are of particular concern owing to their rarity or dependence on threatened or degraded habitats. 41. Some species of sawfish (Pristiformes spp.), for example, are considered to be rare in parts of their range and are further threatened because of their dependence on habitats that are threatened in rivers, estuaries and shallow waters (Adams & Wilson, in press). Sawfishes are taken as by-catch by a number of fishing gear types including shrimp/prawn trawls and gillnets (Adams & Wilson, in press). Recreational Sportfishing 42. Recreational sport fisheries based on sharks have existed for many years and occur in many parts of the world. However, the documented catch by recreational fisheries depends on self-reporting systems. The survivorship of released sharks should be monitored and quantified. Many warm weather tourist destinations promote gamefishing for visitors and manage commercial fisheries to enhance populations of recreational species. Dive tourism that features shark dives is becoming increasingly popular and, in one study in the Maldives, it has been estimated that a grey reef shark may be worth 100 times more alive at a dive site than if it were taken and used in a shark fishery (Anderson and Ahmed, 1993). The extent to which sharks are caught as a by-catch of other recreational fisheries is poorly known. There is a need to collect data in order to assess the impact of these fisheries on sharks. Habitat 43. Another important factor that may influence the conservation of some sharks is degradation and/or loss of suitable areas that serve as nursery habitat for sharks and their prey. Adults of many species are known to utilize inshore pupping and nursery grounds on a seasonal basis, usually in the spring and summer. These habitats are often found in shallow fresh or brackish water and areas with abundant food species, where juveniles are less exposed to predation. Less is known about the location and characteristics of offshore overwintering areas inhabited by many species of sharks, both adults and juveniles, and the offshore pupping grounds of pelagic sharks. Beach-netting 44. Australia and South Africa maintain extensive public safety beach-netting programmes to remove sharks from areas near public beaches. In 1991, it was estimated that Australian nets captured 1,000 to 1,500 sharks each year. Beach nets in South Africa take an average of 1,470 sharks annually in 44 km of permanently maintained nets (Cliff & Dudley, 1992). World Trade in Shark Products 45. Sharks are valuable and versatile fisheries resources. Not only the meat and fins but even the skin and internal organs are used for human consumption. Sharks and rays have become an important attraction to recreational anglers. Shark fin, appreciated in Chinese cuisine, is a valuable product derived from shark fisheries. While considered of low value or entirely unpalatable in some areas, shark meat is becoming popular in many parts of the world. Recently developed markets for shark cartilage offer the opportunity to utilize a fisheries by-product that would otherwise be discarded or used in low-value fishmeal production. It is not clear whether new directed shark fisheries have developed in response to new market demands. The social and economic importance of sharks is increased by the fact that fisheries based on these species are often not 706

4 regulated, and therefore have proven an accessible alternative when other fish species are depleted, restricted or seasonally unavailable. A significant percentage of all sharks fished are taken as by-catch in other fisheries. Data on such fisheries and related trade data for sharks and shark products are poor if not nonexistent. Data on directed shark fisheries often lack detail, reflecting the lower economic importance of these species relative to more lucrative fisheries such as tuna. As a result, it is difficult to form a comprehensive picture of the species or volumes of sharks fished or in trade. Reporting on Shark Fisheries and Trade 46. Shark fisheries have historically represented only a minor and relatively low-value contribution to the overall fisheries production of most countries, and are often a small and/or seasonal component of multi-species fisheries. Therefore, there has often not been any priority on gathering data on sharks or related fisheries. Consequently, information on both the volume and species composition of shark catches and landings and on the species themselves is sparse or non-existent. The fisheries and production data compiled by FAO are based on data supplied by individual countries. Countries often summarize fisheries information when reporting to FAO, with a consequent loss of detail, especially for less important fishery species. In cases where countries do not report on their fisheries, FAO estimates fisheries and production rates using information from other sources. As a result, FAO statistics are often even less detailed than national statistics. Annex 3 provides a composite presentation of primary species landings data. These data have been obtained from the information provided by Parties in response to Secretariat Notification No. 884 of 6 November 1995, FAO and numerous fisheries managers and scientists consulted by the United States in the course of compiling document Doc. AC.13.6 Annex. 47. Trade data for sharks are similarly incomplete. Standard 6-digit Customs tariff headings adopted under the 'Harmonised System' tariff classification system are not specific for shark products other than 'dogfish and other sharks'. A few countries use sub-codes to separate 'dogfish' from 'other sharks' and/or to identify shark fin in trade, but Customs records of trade in shark leather, cartilage and oil are rarely reported. This is reflected in the trade data compiled by FAO. Furthermore, national Customs classification of imports and exports often do not correspond to FAO trade categories. 48. Even when reported, international trade figures may not accurately reflect actual trade. In some cases, trade figures may significantly overestimate the actual volume of world trade in a given item, e.g. shark fins, because the same items are counted several times as they pass through a series of countries for repeated processing and transhipment. And for other trade, even if the product form is known (e.g. meat), standard conversion factors needed to convert weights into live or carcass weight vary widely by species, processing technique, country and region. The limitations of existing published fisheries and trade data reduce their utility for fisheries assessment and management. Meat 49. Shark meat in dried, salted and smoked form has traditionally been consumed in communities worldwide. In most regions, large-scale commercial exploitation of sharks began only after World War I. In many countries, industry and/or government marketing campaigns and market development efforts succeeded in overcoming an initial consumer reluctance to accept shark meat for human consumption. However, owing to the relatively low value of or demand for the meat of most shark species, historical domestic markets and trade in shark meat have not been identified as having led to the over-exploitation of stocks. The former porbeagle fishery in the North-west Atlantic and spiny dogfish fishery of the North Sea represent exceptions. 50. The production of shark meat reported by FAO (recorded as sharks/skates fresh/frozen and shark fillets fresh/frozen) appears to represent only a small fraction of the total world production. This reflects the fact that many countries do not report domestic production of shark meat in their national catch and landing statistics. Many countries do not report their fisheries imports and exports to FAO. Furthermore, because most of the national shark trade data reported are very general (e.g. reported as sharks, rays and skates) or may not be reported as shark at all, published FAO data do not accurately reflect world production of shark meat. Unfortunately, Customs data are often even less specific than FAO production data with regard to products. Items reported under the Customs classification for frozen shark may include whole carcasses, headed and gutted carcasses with the fins removed, blocks or clippers and/or fillets. 51. Sharks, rays, skates and chimaeras have become increasingly important in recent years in both domestic and international markets. The principal importers are Italy, France, United Kingdom, Germany and Denmark, while the main exporters are: the United Kingdom; Ireland; Denmark; and Germany (Figure 1). The importance of these countries in shark trade, as reflected in FAO data, is likely to be due in part to their historical role in shark (specifically dogfish) trade and to more complete reporting of trade. 52. According to FAO data (FAO, in litt.) reported world exports of fresh, chilled, and frozen shark meat rose from 27,700 tonnes in 1986 to 52,132 tonnes in 1994, while reported world imports increased from 32,085 tonnes in 1986 to 56,031 tonnes in 1994 (Figure 2). Reported trade in shark fillets remains much lower in volume. World trade in fresh, chilled and frozen skates appears to remain significantly under-reported. An average of 1,780 tonnes of unidentified sharks, rays, skates, and chimaeras were reported as exported annually. Fin 53. Many species of shark have commercially valuable fins. Value is determined by their colour, size, thickness and fin needle content (Kreuzer and Ahmed, 1978; Subasinghe, 1992). Average unit value of fins imported into Hong Kong increased from USD 11.20/kg in 1980 to USD 40.60/kg in 1992, peaking in 1995 at USD 41.00/kg (Parry- Jones 1996, cited in Rose, 1996). 54. Available data demonstrate a steady increase in the volume of shark fins traded internationally, until 1988 when the level of trade in this commodity became more stabilised. There are insufficient data to determine whether the development of new shark fisheries or increased shark landings have resulted from declining catches of other fisheries or represent a stimulated response to an increase in the price of shark fin and expanding trade networks to and through key Asian consumer centres such as Hong Kong and China. 707

5 55. Fisheries and trade data currently available are insufficient to provide a basis from which to adequately assess the impact of world demand for shark fins. Far greater emphasis must be placed on documenting shark fisheries in order to assess whether or not they are sustainable. Published FAO trade data for shark fins are substantially incomplete. Only about 20 countries report domestic production of shark fins and these data are likely to significantly underestimate actual production as shark fins are often retained by fishermen and sold to dealers or processors as a supplement to their wages (Kiyono, 1996; Parry-Jones and Anonymous, 1996). Fins may also be sold at sea to vessels of other countries (Parry-Jones and Anonymous, 1996). The FAO database for 1993 contains import data for only nine countries and export data for only 15 although 125 countries are known to trade in shark fins directly with Hong Kong. The total reported world imports of dried and salted shark fins averaged 5,330 tonnes annually during the period , peaking in 1988 at 5,915 tonnes (Figure 3). Total reported world exports averaged 4,500 tonnes annually during this period, peaking in 1989 at 5,481 tonnes (FAO, in litt.). Figure 1: Reported trade in shark meat (fresh, chilled, frozen) by major trading countries in metric tonnes (average for years 1986 to 1994), after Rose (1996) and updated with most recent data from FAO Figure 2: World trade in shark, ray, skate and chimaera meat, including fillets (fresh, chilled & frozen) as reported by FAO [after Rose (1996) with updated data from FAO] Figure 3: World trade in shark fin (dried & salted) as reported by FAO, after Rose (1996) with updated data from FAO 56. Several factors limit the utility of national Customs data on shark fins and other products for the purposes of developing a cumulative total for the production or international trade in shark fins, or for comparing reported exports with imports. Several countries that are important producers of shark fin also consume large amounts of fin domestically. These export data would therefore not account for fin that was landed or processed within their borders. In many cases, fins are accumulated from domestic fisheries and/or foreign sources for a considerable period of time before being exported or re-exported. During this time they are likely to be sorted and repackaged thus obscuring the country of origin. Shark fins may also be imported for processing then re-exported in one of several forms of processed fins, thereby appearing in trade as a different commodity. Trading countries may or may not report separately each of the product forms in which fins are traded, further confusing comparison. Furthermore, the volume by weight of fins often changes following processing. Finally, a significant proportion of the world trade in shark fins appears to involve several phases (e.g. import and production of unprocessed fins; export/re-export of these fins for processing; and re-importation of the same fins in a different stage of processing). As a 708

6 result, the same fins may appear in the national Customs statistics of several countries more than once. These factors also make it extremely difficult to compare reported trade between two countries, and to relate reported world trade to global or national production of shark fins. The general absence of species identification further reduces the usefulness of FAO and Customs data for assessing conservation impact or for developing management plans. Current trade data provide no species-specific information; shark fins in trade are not identified and in some cases (e.g. processed fins) are not identifiable. Experienced shark fin dealers readily recognize most wet and dried shark fins by species but this ability does not generally extend to Customs agents or fisheries management personnel. 57. Much of the world trade in shark fins passes through Hong Kong for processing, consumption or re-export. Relatively detailed Customs statistics on trade with 125 countries are maintained and are available for the period These data provide the most comprehensive view of the world trade in shark fins in terms of long-term trends and trading countries. However, these data are likely to overstate total trade volumes owing to the fact that fins, in various phases of processing, may be included more than once in the data. Skin and Leather 58. Shark skins were originally used as a rough abrasive for rasping and polishing. Shark leather is extremely durable and has an attractive grain that sometimes resembles crocodile skin (Kreuzer and Ahmed, 1978). A significant market for shark leather developed initially in the United States of America, but was followed by markets in Japan and Europe (Kreuzer and Ahmed, 1978). More recently, tanneries in Australia, Europe, Japan and Thailand have begun to process shark leather (Bostock, 1991; Rigney, 1991). 59. Fisheries historically based primarily on the production of hides have proven to be economically unsuccessful. The increasing popularity of fresh and frozen shark meat also discourages the use of shark skins for leather production. Shark skins are damaged by exposure to fresh water or ice. Onboard processing for meat typically includes gutting and immediate refrigeration or freezing of the carcass. Retaining shark skins is much more feasible during production of dried and/or salted meat from large sharks, especially in small-scale fisheries with short trip durations (Kreuzer and Ahmed, 1978). Production of shark leather remains significant in some countries, e.g. Mexico (Rose, 1992; 1996). 60. Insufficient information is available from the majority of producer nations to determine the implications of trade in shark skins and leather for fisheries management and conservation. Available trade data are inadequate to determine the sources and species most important to the production of and trade in shark leather. Market information from Mexico suggests that the use of and trade in shark skins is extremely limited and is dependent on the close proximity and accessibility of specialized tanneries. Shark skins are a relatively low value product in the Mexican fishery. When taken as a byproduct of existing fisheries, they contribute marginally to the overall value of the fishery (Rose, 1996). Unfortunately, neither domestic production data nor trade data for shark skins are available from the majority of producing countries, e.g. Australia, Bangladesh, China, Japan and Thailand. Liver Oil 61. Shark oil has been widely used historically as a lubricant, in the preservation of small wooden vessels and in the tanning of leather. Vitamin A is derived commercially from shallow water species and squalene from deep water species. In the 1930s, global markets developed for shark liver oil for use in the production of Vitamin A supplements. By the 1950s, these markets had collapsed following the development of synthetic Vitamin A. Currently, a limited market remains for shark liver oil, sold in capsule form as a health supplement. Shark liver oil also yields squalene, a hydrocarbon that is used in the manufacture of lubricants, bactericides, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products (e.g. skin creams). Shark liver oil also has a chemical compound, an ether, which has been reported as effective in the healing of wounds having bacteriostatic action and protecting against radiation (Kreuzer & Ahmed, 1978; Summers & Wong, 1992). The compound squalamine was recently isolated from dogfish and studies suggest it is effective against bacterial infection and also acts against viruses, including HIV. Other studies suggest that synthetic squalamine might slow the process of vascularization in solid brain tumours (Altman, 1996). 62. Although shark liver oil is still used in the manufacture of cosmetic and pharmaceutical products, little production or trade information is available. One trend observed by TRAFFIC during regional market studies is the apparent decline of the processing and marketing of shark livers and liver oil by many former suppliers, at least in part because of the difficulty of collecting the liver and the strong odour of the products. Much of the current production of shark liver oil therefore appears to have shifted to developing countries. 63. Past fisheries based on shark liver oil have resulted in declined stocks. The decline of liver oil fisheries on the United States Pacific Coast during World War II is an example of a shark fishery that was over-exploited. Shark liver oil production continues at present albeit at much reduced levels. Several fisheries specifically target deep water shark species, however there is little information available on these fisheries to determine the extent to which stocks of these species may be vulnerable to local overfishing. Cartilage 64. Several pharmaceutical and food products are produced from the soft and hard cartilage of sharks. In recent years, shark cartilage powder and capsules have been marketed extensively as a treatment for cancer. However, conclusive tests involving human subjects are not yet available, and there is no evidence that shark cartilage administered orally contains sufficient amounts of active ingredients to be effective (Dold, 1996). 65. The use of shark cartilage for human consumption is relatively recent and neither national fisheries nor Customs agencies report the volume of production or trade. Production volumes are also difficult to assess because of the nature of the manufacture and trade. A limited number of companies manufacture powder from cartilage that they purchase direct from i) vessels, ii) processors or retail outlets and/or iii) shark fin dealers who handle a 709

7 variety of dried products. Manufacturers often import cartilage as well as obtaining it from domestic suppliers, then market it under their own brand names or supply ground cartilage to other domestic and/or foreign companies. 66. Medical research also provides a significant market for cartilage in several countries. Major cartilage producing nations are known to include Australia, Japan and the United States of America. It is likely that shark cartilage is supplied by and/or manufactured in other countries but tracing trade routes is difficult owing to the nature of the trade. 67. There is growing concern that new markets for shark cartilage are an additional source of pressure on shark stocks worldwide. These concerns are based on the high retail prices of pharmaceutical products, thereby further stimulating fishing pressure. However, there is little evidence to indicate that the use of cartilage stimulates harvesting of sharks. Rather, it appears that cartilage is a byproduct from shark fisheries based on other products. Retail prices for processed shark cartilage are high but processors pay almost nothing (circa USD 1/kg in North America) for the raw material. Since shark 'bones' account for an average of four per cent of total shark body weight, the value of the cartilage relative to meat and fins is extremely low (Kreuzer and Ahmed, 1978). Processed cartilage is often imported from several countries as well as being purchased locally. Casual observation of processing operations does not therefore provide a valid basis for any critical assessment of the volume of supply from local or even national/regional fisheries. Other Products 68. 'Waste' products of sharks may be used in the production of fishmeal for use in animal feeds, fertilizers, or oils for industrial uses. Shark teeth and jaws have traditionally been used in many cultures in making both functional and ceremonial objects. Shark teeth and jaws are widely used in local curio trades and may enter international trade as tourist souvenirs. A number of shark species are frequently kept as live specimens in public and private aquaria. In some countries, juveniles of small species and egg cases are also collected and exported for sale to private aquarists (Rose, 1996). Glue made from sharks was used in traditional Japanese lacquerware (Kiyono, 1996). Carcasses of some small sharks are used for dissection in biology courses. Shark skin is also consumed as a food product in some Asian and Pacific cultures as are some organs, such as stomachs, livers and intestines, and other body parts (e.g. gills and ova). 69. Shark products have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine, with many edible products considered to be beneficial to health. Other parts and derivatives used for medicinal purposes include the foetus, ovaries, brain, bile, skin, meat and liver oil. In some Asian cultures, shark fin is also believed to be helpful to diabetics, and shark cartilage is considered a health tonic and used as an ingredient in soups (Kiyono, 1996). Limitations of Available Data 70. There is a paucity of reliable information on the biology and population ecology of sharks owing principally to the low priority traditionally afforded to shark research. The fragmentary nature of available information increases the difficulty of evaluating the impacts of trade on the resource. The lack of structured management programmes for many shark fisheries is both a cause and a result of not having adequate speciesspecific data and of the following inadequacies: 71. lack of basic life history information (growth rate, longevity, age at maturity, fecundity, recruitment); 72. lack of population data (temporal and spatial distribution in general and by sex and age); 73. lack of data on stock size and on exchange between stocks; 74. lack of or unreliable nature of species-specific catch and effort data with data on size at capture; 75. misleading or significantly incomplete published catch statistics for shared fisheries; and 76. lack of ecological studies (habitat requirements, predator-prey relationships, etc.). Current Management of Sharks 77. According to published data of FAO, world reported catches of sharks and related species have been rising steadily since the 1940s (Compagno, 1984: Bonfil, 1994). Total reported world catches averaged 678,249 tonnes in the decade , with an upward trend from 625,974 tonnes in 1985 to 730,784 tonnes in 1994 (see Table 1 and Figure 4, FAO 1995; 1996). Figure 4: World elasmobranch catches (catch and landings represent specimens kept and reported) as reported by FAO, after Rose (1996) with updated data from FAO 78. The Western Indian Ocean (FAO Area 51), Eastern Indian Ocean (FAO Area 57), North-west Pacific (FAO Area 61), and Western Central Pacific (FAO Area 71) reported the highest catches of chondrichthyans, together accounting for nearly 57 per cent (Table 1) of world reported catches (FAO, 1995, 1996). These data underestimate the actual annual catch because FAO statistics do not include discards and subsistence fisheries, and usually exclude recreational and artisanal catches (Bonfil, 1994). 79. Data on the utilization of sharks are scarce because countries do not regularly report statistics on shark products or local consumption. Fresh shark meat is consumed locally in many parts of the world, but because shark meat is difficult to process, it has been of low export value. In contrast, dried shark fins and dried shark meat are easy to process and supply. In the mid-1980s, the demand for shark fins in Asia increased markedly. This caused an increase in fin prices. Although data on the fin trade are substantially incomplete because many countries do not report fin exports, trade in fins increased dramatically in the 1980s and has remained stable since 1988 (Figure 3). 80. In 1994, about 105 countries reported chondrichthyan landings to FAO. Of these, 26 are considered to be major shark-fishing nations, landing more than 10,

8 tonnes of chondrichthyans a year. Only three countries (Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America) have integrated research and management plans for their shark fisheries. Recently, Canada became the fourth nation to implement a shark management plan. Annex 4 presents a summary of the domestic management tools currently in use by countries that operate a shark fishery. 81. Although directed shark fisheries have been documented throughout the world, few are managed. Management of most sharks is complicated by the lack of adequate baseline data on species-specific abundances, life-history information, size of catches and fishing effort, and discards at sea. Effective management is complicated further by the migratory nature of some species. The long life span and slow maturation of some species means that the effects of fishing and management strategies introduced will not be apparent until years later in some cases. Intergovernmental Fishery Management and Scientific Organizations 82. Many shark species have wide-ranging distributions which frequently traverse national boundaries and are harvested by multinational fisheries. In recent years several intergovernmental fisheries bodies, e.g. FAO, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), the Latin American Organization for Fishery Development (OLDEPESCA), the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Convention (IATTC), the South Pacific Commission (SPC) and the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), have initiated efforts to encourage member countries to collect information on sharks. Improved recording and reporting of landings of certain sharks in European Community waters (e.g. basking shark, spiny dogfish, porbeagle, dogfish sharks [Squalidae spp.], smoothhounds [Mustelus spp.] and mako shark) will result from EC Council Regulation (COM(95) 322 final). 83. The UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks negotiated an Agreement to facilitate implementation of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea's (UNCLOS) provisions relating to the conservation and management of high seas fish stocks. The Agreement was opened for signature and ratification on 4 December It will enter into force for each State or entity that ratifies or accedes to it 30 days after receipt of the 30th instrument of ratification. The Agreement will establish rules and conservation measures for high seas fishery resources. The Agreement calls for Parties to protect marine biodiversity, minimize pollution, monitor fishing levels and stocks, provide accurate reporting of and minimize by-catch and discards, and gather reliable, comprehensive scientific data as the basis for management decisions. It also calls for a precautionary, risk-averse approach to management of these species when scientific uncertainty exists. The UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Migratory Fish Stocks also directs States to seek to co-operate in relation to these species through appropriate subregional fishery management organizations or arrangements. Under UNCLOS, oceanic sharks, defined as highly migratory species are: Hexanchus griseus, Cetorhinus maximus, Rhincodon typus, Alopiidae spp., Carcharinidae spp., Sphyrnidae spp. and Lamidae spp. 84. Other species and populations may qualify as a "straddling stock" under Article 63(2) of the Convention, particularly in areas where jurisdiction has not been extended to the 200 mile limit (e.g. the Mediterranean Sea). For these sharks, co-ordinated management and assessment of shared migratory populations would promote an understanding of the cumulative impacts of fishing effort on the status of shared populations. 85. Existing intergovernmental fishery management regimes manage other migratory species such as tunas and billfishes. Various intergovernmental fishery organizations have jurisdiction within specific regions or oceans. These include ICCAT, the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna, IATTC and IOTC. Although only a few of the legal instruments that establish these intergovernmental organizations provide the competence to recommend regulatory measures for species other than tunas and tuna-like species (e.g. the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, IOTC and OLDEPESCA), none is currently managing sharks or their fisheries. However, some measures can be taken to establish mechanisms by which these organizations are able to manage shark fisheries in the future. Scientific organizations, such as ICES and the SPC, study and provide scientific recommendations on species within the scope of their competence. 86. Some co-ordinated scientific programmes for sharks currently exist. Co-operative tagging programmes have existed for more than two decades in some parts of the world and have advanced knowledge of migratory patterns, age and growth, natural mortality, behaviour and habitat areas (Casey and Taniuchi, 1990). Data gathered through these efforts confirm that many shark species have wide-ranging distributions, which frequently traverse national boundaries and are thus subject to exploitation by more than one national fishery. 87. Current international regimes for managing fisheries that catch sharks directly or incidentally are inadequate to ensure sustainable fisheries. Besides large geographic gaps in which there is no management of fisheries affecting sharks, existing management regimes suffer from significant functional gaps, including data collection on shark catches and application of the precautionary principle (Weber and Fordham, 1997). Where existing international regimes are competent to recommend regulatory measures, enforcement of these recommendations rests with signatory States. However, non-compliance with recommendations impacts the effectiveness of recommended management measures. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 88. FAO, with respect to fisheries, has a role in the collection, analysis and dissemination of information as well as providing policy guidelines for the rational management and development of world fisheries. The data currently available to FAO are highly variable in quality and are thought to concern only a portion of catches and trade. The catch data held by FAO have not been collated with the intention of stock assessment or management. As a consequence the level of aggregation is by country, year, species and FAO statistical area 89. The concept of responsible fisheries emerged during the 19th session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) in 1991 (Palacio, 1995a). In May 1992 the Government of Mexico, in co-operation with FAO, organized an International Conference on Responsible Fishing, from which the Declaration of Cancún was derived. This in turn led FAO to develop the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The Code complements the provisions of the UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks and sets out principles 711

9 and international standards of behaviour for responsible practices with a view to ensuring the effective conservation, management and development of living aquatic resources, with respect for the ecosystem and biodiversity. The Code addresses fisheries management, fishing operations, aquaculture development, integration of fisheries into zone management, postharvest practices and trade, and fisheries research. 90. Although no specific reference to CITES is contained in the Code, two articles in particular incorporate provisions that are similar in intent to relevant sections of CITES. The general principles of the Code (Article 6) call on non-participants of regional fisheries management activities, whose vessels engage in practices that undermine the effectiveness of measures contained in the Code, to co-operate in implementing the Code (Palacio, 1995a). In cases where such activities are not rectified, countries implementing the Code, are able, within the framework of the Code and consistent with international law, to "restrict the introduction into their domestic markets of fish and fish products originated by vessels of such non-participants in waters where the conservation and management measures are applied". With respect to Post-harvest Practices and Trade, Article 10 of the Code states that international trade should not compromise the sustainable development of fisheries and responsible utilization of resources (Palacio, 1995a). The FAO Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas is an integral part of the Code. This section is applicable to high seas fisheries in the event that international conservation and management measures are adopted for sharks. 91. FAO is currently developing a programme to improve shark catch and trade statistics in response to Resolution Conf The three proposed components of the programme include: 92. a consultancy to design and undertake an inquiry on the availability of biological and trade data on sharks; 93. production of a species catalogue for batoid fishes and of an update of the Shark World Species Catalogue produced in the early 1980s; and 94. production of an update of the Shark Utilization and Marketing Monograph issued in The total cost of these activities is estimated at USD 330,000, which the Government of Japan will fund. 96. In July 1996, FAO engaged a consultant to design a questionnaire for the collection of species-specific catch and trade data on elasmobranchs for the period , including available information on the status of elasmobranch stocks. Additional information on shark catches and trade in shark products will be obtained by liaising with identified national experts on elasmobranchs and major business enterprises that exploit elasmobranchs. These data will be assembled, analyzed and published in a summary report providing preliminary indications of those species of sharks at risk and of what follow-up action or monitoring is necessary. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 97. ICES is an intergovernmental organization established in 1902 for the purpose of promoting and co-ordinating research on living marine resources in the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. For the last few decades, it has been responsible for providing advice at the international level on scientific and policy matters relating to fisheries, pollution and other marine environmental issues. Member nations include all North Atlantic States, including all but one of the Baltic countries. 98. Following an initiative to establish a Study Group on Elasmobranch Fisheries in 1989 (ICES, 1989), ICES established a Study Group on Elasmobranch Fishes in 1994, which met in August Bonfil (1996) summarizes the Study Group s terms of reference as follows: 99. to review the status of elasmobranch stocks within the North-east and North-west Atlantic and, where possible, identify trends in biomass and recruitment; 100. to identify the extent of the commercial and sport fisheries in which elasmobranchs are targeted or caught as by-catch and estimate the amount (biomass/numbers per size class) of elasmobranchs taken as catch and lost as discards; 101. to describe/review the ecological role of elasmobranch species, their reproductive dynamics and predation of elasmobranchs by species or species group; 102. to co-ordinate techniques of age determination and age verification of elasmobranchs; 103. to co-ordinate methods of modelling and assessment of elasmobranch stocks; 104. to identify the development of compensatory mechanisms as a response to exploitation; and 105. to outline an action plan for attaining the goals set above The meeting produced a report that contains much of the available information on elasmobranch fishes and fisheries in North American and European waters and initiated some joint work on some of the key issues related to achieving sustainable exploitation of elasmobranchs. The report from this Study Group was presented at the 1995 ICES Annual Science Conference (ICES, 1995) and includes a number of recommendations on fisheries in the North Atlantic: 107. all survey cruises should identify skates and sharks to the species level; 108. records should improve the level of species classification for commercial catches of sharks and skates; 109. member countries should check conversion factors used to raise species to live weight; 110. the pattern of elasmobranch discards should be examined from other fisheries, discards should be quantified and survival rates studied; 111. elasmobranchs should be included in the remit of the ICES Study Group on Stock Identification; 112. workshops on predation and ageing should be convened; 113. a case population for which there is a good data set should be used to test the validity of assessment methods on elasmobranch populations; 712