Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation STRATEGY FOR POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

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1 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation STRATEGY FOR POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 2010

2 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation All - Russian Scientific Research Institute for Nature Conservation Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution

3 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation STRATEGY FOR POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION The Strategy for Polar Bear Conservation in the Russian Federation is approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation, Decree No. 26-r of 5 th July

4 INTRODUCTION THE GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STRATEGY TAXONOMY OF THE POLAR BEAR POLAR BEAR DISTRIBUTION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION THE NUMBER OF POLAR BEARS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION BIOLOGY OF THE POLAR BEAR AND PREREQUISITES FOR ITS CONSERVATION LIMITING FACTORS STATUS OF THE POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION PRIORITY POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION MEASURES STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION PARTNERS

5 INTRODUCTION Since the very beginning of human activities in the Arctic, the polar bear has been the symbol of the region. It is the largest land predator, perfectly adapted to the extreme climate of the Arctic, long polar nights, and prolonged periods of forced fasting. The polar bear is the only land mammal species using Arctic pack ice as its main habitat. Despite inhabiting some of the areas of the Earth that are least accessible to humans, the polar bear has been highly vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts. Excessive hunting pressure on the polar bear that continued across most of its range until the early 1970s led to a dangerous decrease in the population size. The Artic states managed to stop this trend by taking a number of effective polar bear conservation measures in the second half of the 20 th century. The most decisive steps were made by Russia and Norway, which prohibited polar bear hunting in 1956 and 1973, respectively. In addition, the Arctic states took actions to protect key habitats of the species or introduced restrictions on the harvesting of polar bears. In Greenland (Denmark), a system of quotas for polar bear harvesting was introduced on January 1, The taking of cubs of any age and females accompanied by cubs, as well as export of cubs, is prohibited. Any taking of polar bears is prohibited between July 1 and August 31 across Greenland, except for Ittoqqortoormiit and Ammassalik districts where it is prohibited between August 1 and September 30. In Canada, quotas for the taking of polar bears by indigenous hunters are established on an annual basis. A license holder is able to transfer the right to a shot to a non-native hunter, but is required to accompany the hunter in a dog sledge during the hunt. In the late 20 th century, in addition to the existing anthropogenic pressure on the Arctic ecosystems, of which the polar bear is a part, climatic changes in the Arctic became another factor having an adverse impact on polar bear habitats. For this reason in May, 2008 the polar bear was listed as a threatened species under the US Endangered Species Act. According to estimates of the Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, by 2050 the polar bear population size may decrease by 30% as a result of adverse changes in its habitats. At the same time, another scenario cannot be completely ruled out due to the existing lack of knowledge on climate change. This scenario forecasts that current warming in the region will stop in years and be followed by a subsequent period of cooling and increase in sea ice area. Thus, the long-term conservation of the polar bear requires the elaboration of special measures to ensure the well-being of the populations of this unique species due to increasing anthropogenic impact on marine and coastal ecosystems and climatic changes in the Arctic. 3

6 1. THE GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STRATEGY 1.1. The Goal of the Strategy To define the mechanisms for conservation of the polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic under the conditions of increasing anthropogenic impact on marine and coastal ecosystems and climatic changes in the Arctic Objectives of the Strategy Conservation of the existing polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic; Minimization of the adverse impacts from anthropogenic factors on the polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic. 2. TAXONOMY OF THE POLAR BEAR 2.1. Common Names in Russian and English, and Scientific Name Белый медведь, Polar bear, Ursus maritimus Phipps, Taxonomic Hierarchy: Class Mammalia Order Carnivora Family Ursidae Genus Ursus Species Ursus maritimus 4

7 3. POLAR BEAR DISTRIBUTION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION At present, the polar bear inhabits the Northern Circumpolar Area. A total of 19 populations of the species are identified within its range. In Russia (the Russian Arctic) there are three polar bear populations, including the Kara-Barents population, the Laptev population, and the Chukotka-Alaska one (see Fig. 1). Canada Atlantic Ocean Greenland USA Denmark Norway Kara-Barents population Arctic Basin Laptev population Chukotka- Alaska population Pacific Ocean Arctic Circle Russia Fig. 1. Distribution of the Polar Bear in Russia 5

8 6 The ranges of the three polar bear populations inhabiting the Russian Arctic cover the Arctic seas and the northern part of the Bering Sea: the Kara-Barents population inhabits the Barents and Kara Seas; the Laptev population the Laptev Sea and the western part of the East Siberian Sea; the Chukotka-Alaska population the eastern part of the East Siberian Sea, the Chukchi Sea, and the northern part of the Bering Sea. Outside the Russian Arctic, the range of the Chukotka-Alaska population includes the parts of the Chukchi and Bering Seas adjacent to the western and northwestern coasts of Alaska, while the range of the Kara-Barents Sea includes the Svalbard area. The polar bear populations in most of their ranges (including the whole range of the Laptev population) are restricted in their southward distribution by the northern coast of Eurasia. The animals rarely leave coastal areas to wander the mainland tundra, although this takes place from time to time. In March April polar bear encounters took place in various locations of the mainland Chukotka (including the Markovo settlement, the Mayn River mouth, Rarytkin Ridge, the middle reaches of the Tanyurer River etc.). The largest number of maternity dens in the Russian Arctic is found on Wrangel Island (the Chukchi Sea), on the northern coast of Chukotka (the Chukchi Peninsula), and on the islands of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya archipelagos in the Barents Sea. The southern boundary of the polar bear range in the Bering Sea and the southwestern boundary of the range in the Barents Sea are defined by the pack ice edge, the position of which is subject to considerable seasonal and annual variation. The northern part of the range includes some areas of the Arctic Basin adjacent to the peripheral seas. The exact area of the current range of the polar bear is difficult to measure since it varies between seasons and years. It is also subject to climatic variations associated with changes in the extent of the pack ice in the Bering and Barents Seas. 4. THE NUMBER OF POLAR BEARS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION By the early 1960s the number of polar bears in several areas of the Arctic had dramatically declined as a result of unregulated harvesting. A number of urgent conservation measures taken by the Arctic states helped stop this trend, giving rise to the population recovery process. At present, the world s total number of polar bears does not exceed 20,000-25,000. According to expert estimates, in the early 1990s the size of the polarbear populations inhabiting the Russian Arctic and the adjacent areas amounted to: the Kara-Barents population animals, the Laptev population animals, the Chukotka-Alaska population animals. For the latter population, the estimate recommended by the Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission is 2000 animals.

9 Based on the results of the polar bear census conducted in 2004 in the northern part of the Barents Sea, including the area of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land archipelagos, the size of the Barents Sea part of the Kara-Barents population was estimated at approximately 2650 animals. 5. BIOLOGY OF THE POLAR BEAR AND PREREQUISITES FOR ITS CONSERVATION 5.1. Polar Bear Biology and Reproduction Rate The polar bear is an evolutionarily young species. It is thought that its modern phenotype formed between 250,000 and one million years ago. Most scientists studying the evolution of the species believe that the polar bear originated from a group of brown bears in the early or mid-pleistocene. Initially, the ancestors of the polar bear supposedly fed on organic remains found in the littoral zone, gradually switching to active hunting of seals resting on the sea ice. Eventually, this process led to the evolution of an active predator capable of living on the sea ice throughout the year and well-adapted to extreme environmental conditions of the Arctic. The polar bear is the largest land carnivore with adult males measuring up to 280 cm in length, and up to 160 cm in height at its shoulders. Males typically weigh kg, although the weight of an adult male has reached 800 kg in some reported cases. Females are smaller and lighter ( kg), however, the weight of a pregnant female going into a den may reach 500 kg. The polar bear differs from other bear species by its long neck and flat head. The bear s fur coat consists of pigment-free hollow hairs that vary from white to yellowish in colour. Sometimes the coat of bears living in a hot humid climate (e.g. kept in a zoo) may turn pale green due to microscopic algae growing in their hollow hair shafts. A very thick and dense coat of fur protects the animal from the cold. A thick layer of subcutaneous fat also plays an important role in animal s adaptation to environmental conditions. The bear has well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and sight. Polar bears generally lead a solitary or solitary family (a female with her cubs) way of life, but may form large temporary groups associated with major sources of food. Typically, bears are not aggressive toward each other, although adult males may attack cubs. According to zoo reports, the life span of polar bears rarely exceeds years (the record life span in captivity amounted to 45 years). Females usually reach sexual maturity at 4-5 years, males at 6-7 years. The reproductive ability is retained until the age of 21. Courtship and mating take place from March to June; a breeding female may be followed by up to 3-4 males. In September and October, pregnant females come to denning areas coastal mountain areas of the mainland and Arctic islands. The females begin to dig maternity dens when snow banks large enough are formed on the slopes, usually in October or November. The most significant denning areas in the Russian Arctic are located on Wrangel Island, Herald Island, 7

10 8 and in such archipelagos as Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya. The maximum density of maternity dens has been observed on Herald Island, reaching 12 per 1 km 2. The latent phase of pregnancy ends when the female goes into the den and active development of the embryo begins. Pregnancy lasts for a total of days; cubs are born in December and January and most maternity dens are broken open between mid-march and mid-april. After opening of the maternity den, the family stays in the denning area for 2 4 weeks, with the mother helping the cubs get used to living outside the den and preparing them for the transition to the sea ice. During that period, family groups are particularly sensitive to disturbance factors. Reproductive success of the species is determined, to a considerable extent, by denning conditions, including availability and quality of snow banks, theabsence of disturbance factors, and availability of prey and stability of weather conditions after leaving the den. Polar bears are characterized by a low reproductive potential: females give birth once in two or three years, with one to three cubs in the litter. According to the studies conducted in 1970s on Wrangel Island, the average litter size at the end of the denning period was 1.79 (n=192); with the percentage of two-cub litters being 70.3%, one-cub 25.5%, and three-cub 4.2%. Thus, a female is able to produce no more than 8-12 cubs during her lifetime. Cubs are born helpless, as in all bear species, weighing around 600g. Within three months after giving birth, the female and cubs leave the den, switching to a nomadic way of life on the drifting sea ice. In normal conditions, cubs stay with their mother until the third fall of their life. Mortality rate among first-year cubs amounts to at least 30-40%. There is no data on the sex and age structure of the polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic. According to the available data on the bear populations in the foreign Arctic, the male to female ratio is about 1:1, the ratio of adult to young bears is also 1:1. The peculiarities of the polar bear s biology, including large body size, lowfertility, the long period during which cubs stay with their mother, low genetic diversity and high mortality rate in young bears make the species ecologically vulnerable to major changes in the habitat conditions, which, in turn, may lead to a dramatic decline in the population sizes. At the same time, polar bears are characterized by a highly adaptive behavior, well-developed basic intelligence, and a high enough level of ecological plasticity and social behavior (group use of major food sources), which makes it easier for the species to survive and improves the viability of the populations Habitat Requirements The polar bear is the only terrestrial mammal species whose life is, for the most part, associated with the drifting sea ice of the Arctic Ocean. Bears are able to hunt seals, their main prey, from the ice only. The preferred summer habitat of the species is the edge of the polar ice pack, while in the winter they prefer flaw polynyas, the systems of coastal leads, and loose pack ice in the continental shelf area.

11 Seasonal migrations of bears are associated with the annual movement of the polar ice pack edge, in the summer the animals recede to the north, while in the winter they move southward, coming onto the mainland. Recent climatic changes in the Arctic leading to a reduction in the summer ice cover in the Arctic seas resulted in a significant decline in the area of suitable habitats, particularly in the Barents and Chukchi Seas Diet and Foraging Behavior Like all large predators, polar bears need large amounts of food. The main prey of the bear is seals (ringed and bearded seals), which can be hunted from the ice only. Sometimes bears hunt walruses (mainly calves) and harp seals. At the same time, polar bears are able to switch to alternative types of food relatively easily. When staying on the land, they may eat carcasses of dead animals, kelp, fish washed up on shore, and other vertebrate animals they are able to hunt. In some locations, bears feed on waste of animal harvesting activities carried out by humans. There were also known cases of polar bears feeding on seabird colonies. When forced to come onto land in search of food, polar bears often travel large distances along the shore. During such travels they may encounter humans and become a victim of illegal harvesting or a forced kill Behaviour toward Humans The many years of bear-human coexistence in the Arctic show that the polar bear is non-aggressive toward humans by its nature. Even when injured, the bear usually does not attack humans. More than five hundred years of human exploration and development of the Arctic Region saw relatively few cases of bears attacking humans despite regular bear-human encounters. However, the very fact that the polar bear is a large and a very powerful predator, which in some cases may attack humans, poses a potential threat. A real threat to humans is posed by hungry (starving) animals, particularly old animals unable to hunt their usual prey anymore, young bears that have not developed sufficient hunting skills yet, as well as females trying to protect their cubs. The polar bear may become aggressive when chased, or when it encounters humans unexpectedly. In natural conditions, defensive and orientation/exploratory behaviour in bears prevail over aggression. When encountering man-made structures, standalone buildings or human settlements on their way, bears may try to enter them searching for food or out of curiosity. When visiting human settlements, bears sometimes try to enter living and production premises, but most often they are attracted by food waste dumps, as well as fish and sea mammals dressing sites. In some cases humans deliberately feed bears visiting settlements, polar stations, and expedition base camps. In this way they deliberately or inadvertently create potential for human bear conflict, which may ultimately lead to the death of bears or humans. 9

12 6. LIMITING FACTORS There exists a broad range of limiting factors for the polar bear and the extent of their impact is also quite varied. The wide variety of impacts caused by the limiting factors can be divided into two major classes: direct and indirect impacts. Direct impacts include poaching, forced kills resulting from human-bear encounters, harvesting by indigenous peoples of the Chukchi Peninsula for their traditional needs, removal from the wild for research and cultural and educational needs, and disturbance factors caused by human activities. The most significant indirect impacts in terms of their influence on the polar bear abundance include reduction of habitats resulting from industrial development in northern areas, environmental pollution and climate change Direct Impact Factors Retrospective review of polar bear harvesting in the Russian Artic The harvesting of polar bears in the northern part of the Bering Sea and in the Chukchi Sea (the eastern sector of the Russian Arctic) started in the late 18 th century and considerably expanded in the 19 th century, when tens and in some years even hundreds of ships, mainly American, were involved in sea mammal hunting in the region. Polar bears were harvested as a secondary species, with annual take not exceeding several dozens. Many more polar bears were harvested by coastal indigenous communities of the Chukchi Peninsula. In the late 19 th century, annual take of polar bears amounted to , in the 20 th century (prior to the Second World War) this figure swelled to 250, with an even larger number of harvested animals in certain years. In the years that followed, the number of harvested bears gradually decreased, apparently reaching one hundred or less in the early 1950s. In the decades preceding the Second World War, a substantial number of bears were harvested on Wrangel Island by commercial hunters. Between 1926 and 1934, more than 1000 bears, mainly breeding females and cubs of the year, were hunted on the island. In the central sector of the Russian Arctic (the Laptev Sea, the western part of the East Siberia Sea, and at the northern coast of Yakutia) the number of annually hunted polar bears apparently did not exceed several tens. In the western sector of the Russian Arctic, polar bear harvesting had been developing since the 18 th century. Vessels of walrus hunters also harvested bears as a secondary species. The annual take apparently amounted to at least 100 bears, with the peak value 200 animals or more reached in the s. It is likely that between the end of the Second World War and the imposition of the hunting ban, the annual polar bear take in the region amounted to On the islands and continental coast of the Barents and Kara Seas, between several tens and more than a hundred polar bears were harvested annually 10

13 since the second half of the 19 th century. On the Franz Josef Land, the annual take of bears varied from several tens to since its discovery in Thus, the hunting pressure on the polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic considerably decreased after the end of the Second World War. Prior to the imposition of the hunting ban, polar bear hunting was typically practiced as a secondary activity by personnel of polar stations, participants of various expeditions, and marine mammal and fur game hunters. The first limitations on polar bear harvesting were introduced in the Soviet Union in 1938, when bear hunting from ships and, without extreme necessity, at polar stations was prohibited. In 1950, comprehensive hunting limitations were introduced. Later the RSFSR Council of Ministers adopted the Decree dated November 21, On the Conservation of Arctic Animals, which imposed a total ban on polar bear hunting since Removal from the wild for cultural/educational and research purposes After the introduction of the ban, removal of polar bears from the wild has been permitted only for research purposes, or to meet the needs of zoos and circuses. For these purposes, a small number of bears (peaking at about fifteen animals in some years of the 1970s) were removed from the wild in certain years on the Wrangel 11

14 Island (prior to the establishment of the state strict natural reserve there) and on the Franz Josef Land (until the mid-1980s). Orphaned cubs were occasionally captured and sent to zoos and circuses. At present, procedures for the taking and handling of animals listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, including the polar bear, are defined by two Decrees of the Russian Government: 13, dated January 6, 1997, On Approval of the Rules for the Taking of Animals Belonging to the Species Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, except for Aquatic Biological Resources, and 156, dated February 19, 1996, On the Procedure of Issuing Permits (Executive Licenses) for the Handling of Wild Animals Belonging to the Species Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (for more details see section of this Strategy). The Russian Government s Decree 156, dated February 19, 1996, sets forth, in particular, that keeping animals in captivity which are of the species included in the RF Red Book can be permitted only for the purpose of conservation and reproduction of animals in an artificial habitat, as well as for research or cultural and educational purposes. This way the animals can be released to the natural environment for the purpose of their conservation and/or replenishment of natural populations. Decisions on removal of polar bears of the Alaska-Chukotka population from the wild are made based on the recommendations of the U.S.-Russia Polar Bear Commission Poaching Although prior to the early 1990s the poaching of polar bears took place in the Russian Arctic, it was limited to individual cases of killing at polar stations, mines, or coastal communities. A person trying to transport skins from a hunting site and/or sell them would face serious difficulties at the time. The year 1992 saw the beginning of a dramatic change in the situation. Since the mid-1990s illegal hunting of polar bears has become a widespread practice in certain areas, with the most significant poaching hotspots including Chukotka and Western Taymyr (around Dikson settlement). This conclusion is based on the information on the number of polar bear skins processed by taxidermists in large cities, on the number of skins offered for sale via the Internet, and on the results of surveys conducted in the indigenous communities of the Chukchi Peninsula. Although there is no accurate data available on the exact number of polar bears illegally taken in the Russian Arctic and associated damage to the respective populations, experts believe that this figure is significant in terms of its impacts on the conservation of the populations Forced kills resulting from human-bear conflicts The shrinking of the Arctic sea ice caused by the changing climate in the Arctic forces polar bears to move onto land more frequently. This leads to an increased probability of human-bear conflicts and forced kills. 12

15 In the vast majority of cases, forced kills of bears visiting human settlements were a result of conflicts initiated by humans, or incorrect behavior of the latter during bear encounters. This issue is most acute for the indigenous settlements of Chukotka, where sea mammal hunting is traditionally practiced. Carcasses of sea mammals and products of their dressing attract bears to the settlements, where they often get killed by humans. Conflicts resulting from polar bears visiting human settlements also occur in Novaya Zemlya, where bear attacks on military servicemen often result in fatalities Disturbance factors Polar bears particularly sensitive to disturbance factors include pregnant females during the period of going into the den (September-November), females with newborn cubs during the period of coming out of the den and getting prepared for leaving for the ice (March-April), and females with cubs of the year. Disturbance to females during the period of entering the den may force them to move to another location or even to another denning area. Disturbance to family groups caused by movement of land vehicles near dens during the period of den opening or on the routes to the sea ice may cause unprepared cubs to prematurely leave the den, reducing the chance of their survival, or lead to the loss of cubs as a result of the panic flight of their mother. Additional disturbance to the animals is caused by the industrial development of the Arctic Region, increased shipping on the Northern Sea Route, further development of sea cruise tourism, as well as ecological and scientific tourism. Permanent and intense impact of such factors may lead to the loss of some natural habitats of the polar bear Indirect Impact Factors Changes in the natural habitats One of the most significant threats to the bear population status is the degradation (loss and transformation) of natural habitats resulting primarily from the industrial development of land and sea areas, and the environmental pollution Industrial development of the region The national economic development programs (including, in particular, The Fundamentals of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic until 2020 and for the Subsequent Period approved by the President of the Russian Federation on September 18, 2008, Pr-1969, and the Development and Management of the Arctic Subprogram of The World Ocean Federal Targeted Program approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated August 10, 1998, 919) suggest a particularly important role of the Arctic in the economic development of the country. There are rich hydrocarbon resources on the Arctic continental shelf. The full-scale development of these resources may start in the near future. The main areas of oil and gasextraction activities will include the Barents Sea, the Gulf of Ob and the Taz Estuary in the Kara Sea, the Yamal Peninsula, and, in a longer-term perspective, other Arctic seas of Russia. 13

16 The seas of the Russian Arctic have traditionally been used as transportation routes for supplying northern towns and settlements with fuel, equipment, and food. The Northern Sea Route has become the main transportation artery for most arctic and subarctic areas of Russia. The significance of the Northern Sea Route will particularly increase after the beginning of the planned development of commercial shipping between Western Europe and Southeast Asia, and largescale extraction of oil and gas on and off the coast of the Barents and Kara Seas. Further development of economic activities in the Arctic Region of Russia, including oil and gas extraction on the continental shelf of the Arctic seas and more intense use of the Northern Sea Route, will have a positive impact on the socio-economic development of the northern areas. New infrastructure will be built and new jobs will be created in the region. At the same time, the expansion of industrial development aggravates environmental safety issues and creates threats to the wildlife of sea and coastal areas, including the polar bear. There is a potential threat of the loss or disruption of existing polar bear habitats as a result of impacts caused by mining operations, tourism, land transportation etc. The extraction of hydrocarbon resources discovered in the Barents, East Siberia, and Chukchi Seas, possible in the future, will inevitably result in an increase in sea cargo traffic, including oil transportation, and construction of well-developed infrastructure in certain coastal areas. Some of these areas are typically used by polar bears for hunting, migration, maternity denning, and spending ice-free periods on the coast Pollution of polar bear habitats In recent decades, the Arctic Ocean has been facing massive environmental pollution. Some of the pollutants result from mining operations, activities of nonferrous metal industries, and operations of fuel and energy complexes in the region, or are carried to sea ecosystems by the air or rivers emptying into the Arctic seas. Other pollutants originate from sources outside the Arctic, being transported to high latitudes by ocean currents and air masses. Mining operations in the coastal areas and dumps of solid waste near settlements, drilling and mining sites, and polar stations also contribute to sea water pollution with petroleum products, sand, silt, and solid waste. Sea water contamination results in decreased species diversity, as well as in the emergence and wide spreading of microorganisms having aggressive pathogenic properties, or of mutant organisms producing increased amounts of carcinogenic substances. Seawater contamination causes damage to the fish fauna, including species consumed by the ringed seal, which is the main prey of the polar bear. Particularly dangerous to the polar bear are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Research has found that the highest content of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in subcutaneous fat was observed in polar bears taken in the northern part of the Barents Sea, while bears from the Chukchi and East Siberia Seas were characterized by a relatively low PCB content in their fat. 14

17 The accumulation of pesticides, another POP group, was studied in polar bears from the Svalbard and Franz Josef Land areas, as well as Kara, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas. High total levels of individual pesticide components were found in bears taken from the Svalbard area and in the northern parts of the Barents and Kara Seas. Pesticides adversely affect the immune and endocrine systems of polar bears, as well as reproductive function in males. At all stages of oilfield development (including well drilling, potential damages to subsea pipelines, and reloading oil from tankers to land storage facilities) oil spills leading to environmental pollution may occur. When released into the sea water, oil may lead to the death of under-ice organisms and to a dramatic reduction in photosynthetic processes and, as a result, in primary production. This destructive process may then affect higher trophic levels such as invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammals, including polar bears. In addition, oil hydrocarbons released into the sea water may cause the following significant damage to polar bears oil sticking to a bear s fur as a result of swimming in polluted water may hamper thermoregulation functions of the fur; ingesting oil when grooming polluted fur or consuming polluted seals may lead to poisoning of animals. Oil pollution is particularly dangerous to immature bears, whose relative energy consumption for maintaining body temperature is significantly higher than in adult bears. Major oil spills may affect polar bears even in areas distant from the actual accident site. For example, in the case of a large spill in the De Long Strait, sea currents will carry the oil eastward along the northern coast of Chukotka. This will result in pollution of the protected sea area and coast of Wrangel Island ( Wrangel Island State Strict Nature Reserve) key habitats and breeding areas of the Chukotka-Alaska population of polar bears. Major oil spills in the East Siberian or Chukotka Seas (associated with offshore oil extraction or transportation) will also inevitably lead to massive pollution of large shore sections of Wrangel and Herald Islands, and the protected sea area Impacts of marine mammal hunting At present, the hunting of several pinniped and cetacean species is practiced in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The waste produced by hunting is, to certain extent, used by polar bears as food. Marine mammal hunting has both positive and negative aspects in terms of polar bear conservation. The main positive aspect is the expansion of the polar bear trophic base by including in it some parts of large cetacean hunting (in the form of hunting waste). Normally those species are unavailable to bears as a food. This is particularly important at the present time, when earlier seasonal melting of Arctic sea ice and later freezing of the seas reduces opportunities for successful seal hunting by bears, forcing many of them to look for food ashore in the summer and fall. On the other hand, since hunting sites, as well as sites used for dressing and storage of meat and skins (such as hunting bases and villages) attract polar bears looking for food, this increases potential for human-bear conflicts and poaching. This is definitely an adverse aspect of marine mammal hunting. 15

18 Impact of climate change There are two diverse views regarding changes in the Arctic climate and area of the sea ice in the 21 st century. Supporters of the first scenario believe that a unidirectional trend of a warming climate and associated decline in sea ice area in the region will continue throughout the century. Proponents of the second scenario believe that this century will see an oscillating (as opposed to unidirectional) trend of temperature and ice area. According to their projections, the warm period, which started in the first half of the 1980s, will come to an end around The subsequent years will see a decrease in average air temperature and associated increase in sea ice area. This trend will continue until approximately the mid-2030s and will be followed by another warming period, which, like the previous one, will be limited in time.

19 Of the two scenarios outlined above, it is the one of a warming climate that poses a particular threat to polar bears. For the last years, particularly intense warming has been observed in the Greenland, Barents, and Chukchi Seas, and in the southern part of the Beaufort Sea. The effects of a warming climate include a considerable decrease in area and thickness of the sea ice in the summer, the emergence of a growing number of open water areas, changes in the dates of ice formation and breakup, receding of the summer ice pack edge to areas with larger sea depth and lower productivity, an increased number of cases of anomalous winter thaws and rains in the early spring. These and other phenomena associated with a warming climate lead to changes in the range, migration patterns, and preferred habitats of the polar bears and pagophilous seal species (i.e. those whose lifecycle is closely related to the ice) the main prey of the predator. The polar bear population in the western part of the Hudson Bay (Canada) can be used as a model for studying effects of climate warming on polar bears. Studies conducted for the last two decades revealed a statistically reliable correlation between global climate change and effects on the population. In particular, early dates of ice breakup associated with higher air temperatures in the spring correlated with lower weight of females coming onto land, a lower birth rate and lower survival rate of cubs, immature bears, and bears aged twenty years or more. The declining area of sea ice may have adverse effects particularly on pregnant females returning to specific denning areas on land. The distance between the land and the southern edge of the sea ice, where most bears spend the summer, increases, making it difficult or even impossible for females to reach their denning sites. Immature bears are more vulnerable to the impact of environmental factors than adult animals. Swimming in cold sea water is particularly dangerous to young cubs, who do not have enough subcutaneous fat to protect them from hypothermia. The body temperature of a cub immersed in ice water rapidly declines. If further decline in the sea ice area forces family groups to swim from denning areas in order to reach the drift ice, cub mortality rate may increase as a result of hypothermia. It is expected that climate warming will lead to an increased number of rains in the winter or early spring. This may result in the disruption of dens or changes in their temperature regime. Since cubs are born helpless and need to be fed for three or four months before leaving the den, significant changes in the protective properties of dens may have an adverse effect on the survival rate of cubs of the year. Thus the changing climate in the Arctic results in a chain of changes in the habitat conditions of the polar bear and its prey species. During warming periods, such changes usually have adverse impacts on the predator, leading to a decline in population sizes. 17

20 18 7. STATUS OF THE POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION 7.1. Legal Framework of the Conservation Key international conservation conventions and agreements The polar bear is a threatened species included in the IUCN Red List and classified into VU A3c category based on a suspected population reduction of 30% within three generations (45 years) due to a decline in the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and habitat quality. The polar bear has been included in the Appendix II to CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora signed on March 3, 1973), which implies stringent regulation on commercial export and import of the species. The key international instruments aimed at the conservation and recovery of rare and endangered species and, in particular, the polar bear, include: Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, June 5, 1992); Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy, adopted at the third Environment for Europe Ministerial Conference (Sofia, 1995); Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (Oslo, November 15, 1973); Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population (Washington, October 16, 2000) Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (November 15, 1973) The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which was signed in 1973 in Oslo by the five Arctic states the Soviet Union, Canada, Denmark, Norway, and the United States has played a particularly important role in the conservation of the species. Since entering into force in 1976, the Agreement has been providing a foundation for both national conservation measures and the coordination of management and joint research actions between two or more polar bear range states. According to the Federal Law dated July 15, 1995, 101-FZ On International Treaties of the Russian Federation, the Russian Federation continues to exercise its rights and fulfill its obligations arising from international treaties entered by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, being a party to these treaties as the USSR s successor state. The Agreement stipulates that the Contracting Parties shall conduct national research programmes on polar bears, particularly research relating to the

21 conservation and management of the species. They shall, where appropriate, coordinate such research with research carried out by other Parties, consult with other Parties on the management of migrating polar bear populations, and exchange information on research and management programmes, research results and data on bears taken. Each Arctic state shall take appropriate action to protect the ecosystems of which polar bears are a part, with special attention to habitat components such as denning and feeding sites and migration patterns, and shall manage polar bear populations in accordance with sound conservation practices based on the best available scientific data. On June 26-28, 2007, a Polar Bear Range States Meeting was held in Shepherdstown (USA); on March 17-19, 2009, a Meeting of the Parties to the 1973 Agreement was arranged in Tromsø, Norway. At the two meetings, the Parties exchanged information on the conservation and monitoring of polar bear population in the Arctic states, and on the progress toward their sustainable management; they also discussed extended cooperation mechanisms. The Parties agreed that the conservation of polar bears requires adaptive management in response to climate change, and, given likely climatic and ecological changes affecting bear habitats, conservation and management strategies should include monitoring of such changes in particular loss of sea ice and denning habitats and associated responses in polar bear populations and ecosystems that they depend upon. The Parties reinforced the particular importance of protecting ecosystems of which polar bears are a part, and welcomed efforts already undertaken on their habitat protection including creation of protected areas and land and seascape planning. The Parties also discussed other areas of activity that are significant in terms of polar bear conservation and particular steps taken in each area. They also recognized the need for the development of national polar bear conservation programs, including research programs, and for the coordination of efforts in implementing these programs and making management decisions Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population (October 16, 2000) On October 16, 2000, the Agreement on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population was signed by the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation in Washington, USA. The Agreement was entered into force on September 23, The Agreement views polar bears not only as an endangered species to be conserved, but also as a potential subsistence harvest species for the native people of Alaska and Chukotka. 19

22 20 According to the Agreement, the Parties shall cooperate with the goal of ensuring the conservation of the Chukotka-Alaska polar bear population, the conservation of its habitat, and the regulation of its use for subsistence purposes by native people. In doing so, the Parties should pay particular attention to denning areas and areas of high polar bear concentration during feeding and migration. The Parties emphasize consistency of the Agreement with the principles of the 1973 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears. The Agreement authorizes the native people of Alaska and Chukotka, inaccordance with each Party s domestic laws, to hunt polar bears to satisfy their traditional subsistence needs, and to manufacture and sell handicrafts and clothing. The Agreement allows the taking of polar bears by the native people of Alaska and Chukotka within the established limits. At the same time the Agreement bans certain hunting practices. In particular, the following is prohibited by the document: the taking of females with cubs, cubs less than one year of age, and bears in dens (including bears preparing to enter dens or who have just left dens), the use of aircraft, large motorized vessels and large motorized vehicles for the purpose of taking polar bears, as well as the use of poisons, traps or snares for the purpose of taking polar bears; the taking of polar bears for commercial purposes. However, the Agreement does not limit the ability of native people, consistent with the domestic law of the Contracting Parties, to create, sell, and use traditional articles associated with native harvest of polar bears. In order to prevent illegal trade in polar bears, including their parts and derivatives, the Parties shall undertake necessary measures in accordance with domestic law. To coordinate measures for the conservation and study of the Chukotka-Alaska population of polar bears, the Agreement provides for the establishment of the U.S.-Russia Polar Bear Commission composed of representatives of the Parties, including those representing the native people of Chukotka and Alaska. The main tasks of the Commission include, among others: determining, on the basis of reliable scientific data (including traditional knowledge of the native people), the polar bear population s annual sustainable harvest level and the annual taking limits to not exceed the sustainable harvest level; adopting measures to restrict the taking of polar bears for subsistence purposes by the native people within the framework of the established annual taking limits, including seasons and restrictions on sex and age; working to identify polar bear habitats and developing recommendations for habitat conservation measures. Building on the Agreement, representatives of the native people of Alaska and Chukotka conducted a series of consultations in order to ensure more active involvement of the indigenous peoples in the management of the polar bear population.

23 National legislation Red Books All the three population of polar bears occurring in Russia have been included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation with each population assigned a different conservation status: Kara-Barents population category 4 (indeterminate status), Laptev population category 3 (rare), Chukotka-Alaska population category 5 (recovering). At the same time, according to a resolution of the Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (Copenhagen, 2009), the Chukotka- Alaska polar bear population is currently in an unfavorable condition, which makes it reasonable to revise its conservational status. The taking of animals belonging to the species included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (including polar bears) is regulated by the Russian Government s Decree dated January 6, 1997, 13 On Approval of the Rules for the Taking of Animals Belonging to the Species Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, except for Aquatic Biological Resources. According to those Rules, the taking of polar bears is permitted in exceptional cases for such purposes as conservation of the animals, monitoring of the state of their populations, regulating population sizes, protecting human health, eliminating a threat to human lives, preventing mass diseases among agricultural and other domestic animals, and meeting traditional needs of indigenous people. The Administrative Procedure of the Federal Supervisory Natural Resource Management Service (Rosprirodnadzor) for Issuing Permits for the Taking of Animals and Plants Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation has been approved by the Order of the RF Ministry for Natural Resources (MNR) dated April 30, 2009, 123 (registered by the RF Ministry of Justice on June 22, 2009, Reg. No ). The handling of animals belonging to the species included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (including polar bears) is regulated by the Russian Government s Decree dated February 19, 1996, 156 On the Procedure of Issuing Permits (Executive Licenses) for Handling of Wild Animals Belonging to the Species Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation. The handling of polar bears is allowed only on the basis of a permit issued by the Rosprirodnadzor in accordance with the Administrative Procedure of the Rosprirodnadzor for Issuing Permits (Executive Licenses) for Handling of Wild Animals Belonging to the Species Included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, approved by the Order of the MNR dated January 15, 2008, 4 (registered by the RF Ministry of Justice on February 13, 2008, Reg. No ). 21

24 Official guidelines for calculating the size of damages caused to animals included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation and other animals not categorized as huntable or fishable, and to their habitats have been approved by the Order of the MNR dated April 28, 107 (registered by the RF Ministry of Justice on May 29, 2008, Reg. No ). Currently some powers of the federal authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of wildlife conservation or management have been delegated to government authorities of the Russian regions. The polar bear is listed in the Red Books of a number of Russian regions, including Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, Arkhangelsk Region, Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Taymyr (Dolgano-Nenets Autonomous Orkug), and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Laws and regulations of the Russian Federation In Russia, legal and regulatory requirements with regard to conservation and management of wildlife and their habitats, including requirements concerning the polar bear and other rare and endangered species, are defined by a number of environmental and natural resource management laws, decrees of the Russian Government, sectoral regulations, and by other types of law (i.e. civil, criminal, and administrative legislation). The main legal act in the field is the Federal Law On Wildlife, which regulates relationships in the area of conservation and management of the wildlife as a whole, and also in the area of conservation and restoration of their habitats for the purposes of ensuring biodiversity and sustainable management of components thereof, creating conditions for sustainable existence of wildlife, conservation of the gene pool of wild animals, and other forms of wildlife conservation as an integral component of the natural environment. The Law established the right of state ownership of the wildlife within the Russian Federation. The Law also defines practical measures for the conservation of wildlife habitats, including the establishment of specially protected natural areas (SPNAs) and designation of protective land and sea areas essential for certain stages of animal lifecycle (breeding, rearing the young, feeding, rest, migration etc.), where certain types of economic activities are prohibited or restricted in terms of their timing and methods. The Law On Wildlife defines the powers of the state authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of wildlife conservation and management, the powers of federal authorities delegated to the state authorities of the Russian regions, the powers of the regional state authorities own, and the powers of local selfgovernment bodies in the field. The Law establishes the right of citizens and legal persons to public (non-governmental) oversight in the field, actions aimed at the conservation of wildlife and their habitats, and contribution to the implementation of the respective state programs. The Law designates entities responsible for state administration in the field of wildlife conservation and management, and conservation and restoration of their habitats, and defines the main principles of state administration in the field of wildlife conservation and sustainable management. 22

25 In order to ensure wildlife conservation and management, as well as conservation and protection of their habitats, the Law establishes the need for such instruments as state inventory of wildlife and its uses, maintenance of a state wildlife registry, state wildlife monitoring, and implementation of state programs aimed at the conservation of wildlife and their habitats. The Law also establishes that a state environmental expert review conducted prior to making an economic decision potentially affecting wildlife and their habitats is a compulsory wildlife protection measure. According to the Law, rare and endangered animal species shall be listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation and Red Books of the Russian regions. Actions that may lead to the death of animals of such species, a decrease in the population sizes, or damage to their habitats are prohibited; legal persons and citizens performing economic activities in the land or sea areas where such animals live bear responsibility for conservation and reproduction thereof. The Law also established a permit-based approach toward the use and handling of such animals, keeping them in captivity and releasing them to the natural environment. Numerous pieces of secondary legislation and sectoral regulations collectively form a rather well-developed legal framework for activities of state authorities and law enforcement agencies in the field of conservation of rare and endangered species and protection of their habitats, while at the same time establishing a regulatory mechanism with responsibilities of federal and regional authorities which are well defined and delineated. 23

26 24 However, the effectiveness of this generally well-developed regulatory system is considerably reduced due to the lack or insufficient effectiveness of respective enforcement practices, and a number of local legal, regulatory, and methodological gaps in various areas of the system. For example, the Code of Administrative Offences of the Russian Federation establishes administrative liability for the destruction of rare and endangered animal and plant species, included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation or protected by international treaties; for actions (inaction) that may lead to the death of such animals, a decrease in the populations sizes, or damage to their habitats, or to the death of such plants; or for take, collection, keeping, acquisition, sale, or shipment of the abovementioned animals or plants, as well as parts and derivatives thereof without an appropriate permit, or in a manner violating conditions specified by the permit, or in a manner violating other established procedures. At the same time there are no legal provisions that would establish the liability of persons for providing online resources for advertising bear skins for sale, and the liability for acquisition of products of illegal hunting. According to article 20 of the Federal Law On Wildlife, a state environmental expert review shall be conducted prior to making an economic decision potentially affecting wildlife and their habitats as a compulsory wildlife protection measure, while article 24 prohibits actions that may lead to the death of animals included in the Red Books, a decrease in the populations sizes, or damage to their habitats. Given the abovementioned requirements of the Federal Law On Wildlife, it should be established that design documentation of any capital construction project to be implemented in a polar bear habitat area shall be subject to a state environmental expert review in order to verify the compliance of its composition and content with the relevant environmental requirements. However, the existing legislation on the environmental expert review does not require a compulsory state environmental expert review of proposed activities that may have an impact on the environment, unless the proposed development is located in a specially protected natural area, on the continental shelf, within the exclusive economic zone, internal sea waters, the territorial sea or the contiguous zone of the Russian Federation, or is implemented as a targeted program. Therefore there are no legal grounds for prohibiting such a development, even if it is likely to have an adverse impact on polar bear habitats. According to article 5 of the Federal Law On Wildlife, the responsibilities of the state authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of wildlife conservation and management include, among others: implementing a uniform science and technology policy, as well as development and approval of model legal documents and methodological guidelines in the field of wildlife conservation, reproduction, and management; establishment of a unified system for the state inventory of wildlife populations and their uses for the Russian Federation, as well as uniform practices of state wildlife monitoring and maintenance of the state wildlife registry;

27 establishment of procedures for state statistical reporting in the field of wildlife conservation, reproduction, and management. It is also worth mentioning that specific regulations and methodological guidelines in the field of inventory and monitoring of polar bear populations have not yet been developed Territorial Conservation The key polar bear habitats in the Russian Arctic, including maternity denning and hunting sites, are protected in the following specially protected natural areas CSPNA: state strict nature reserves (zapovedniks): Wrangel Island (total area 2,225,650 ha, including 1,430,000 ha of sea area; Chukotka Autonomous Okrug), Great Arctic (total area 4,169,222 ha, including 980,934 ha of sea area; Krasnoyarsk Region), Ust-Lensky (total area 1,433,000 ha; Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, Gydansky (total area 878,174 ha; Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug); national park: Russian Arctic (total area 1,426,000 ha, including 793,910 ha of sea area; Archangelsk Region), state federal nature reserves (zakazniks): Franz Josef Land (total area 4,200,000 ha, including 2,600,000 ha of sea area; Archangelsk Region), Severozemelsky (total area 421,701 ha; Krasnoyarsk Region); state regional nature reserves (zakazniks): Vaygach (total area 242,778 ha; Nenets Autonomous Okrug), Chaunskaya Guba (total area 210,000 ha; Chukotka Autonomous Okrug), Yamalsky (total area 1,402,000 ha; Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug); nature park: Beringia (total area 3,053,300 ha; Chukotka Autonomous Okrug); regional natural monument: Cape Vankarem (total area 40 ha; Chukotka Autonomous Okrug); resource reserves of Sakha (Yakutia) Republic: Buustaakh (total area 1,464,711 ha), Kurdigino Krestovaya (total area 1,067,100 ha), Lena Delta (total area 5,932,000 ha), 25

28 Bear Islands (total area 6,000 ha), Terpey-Tumus (total area 1,112,000 ha), Chaygurino (total area 2,375,600 ha). At the same time, no integrated system for the protection of habitats of all polar bear populations based on the environmental significance of habitats has been built yet. Projected long-terms effects of climatic changes on the status of sea ice have not been taken into account in planning specially protected natural areas Breeding in captivity The earliest mentions of polar bears kept in captivity in Russia date back to 1664; the first cases of successful breeding in captivity were recorded in the 1940s (the Moscow Zoo). A well-selected group of animals (several males and females) may breed for about a decade. For example, in the Moscow Zoo a female gave birth to a total of 11 cubs between 1970 and 1981; another female produced 8 cubs between 1974 and 1982; two females produced a total of 9 cubs between 1998 and Polar bears breed on a regular basis in the zoos of such Russian cities as Kazan, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Perm, Rostov-on-Don, and Yekaterinburg. 8. PRIORITY POLAR BEAR CONSERVATION MEASURES The conservation of polar bear populations can only be achieved through an integrated system of measures aimed at the conservation of both the predator itself and its habitats, including animal species within its food chain. The main objectives in the field of the conservation of polar bear populations include eliminating causes leading to a decline in the population sizes and minimizing adverse impacts of factors leading to the loss or disturbance of suitable habitats. The priority polar bear conservation measures should be aimed at meeteing these objectives Development of International Cooperation In the current conditions, the need for expanding international cooperation on polar bear conservation and research arises from a number of factors, the most important of which are the the impacts of climate change in the Arctic and transboundary impacts of human activities on the species and its habitats. Therefore it is appropriate to expand cooperation within the framework of activities conducted by the Arctic states in accordance with the 1973 Agreement on Conservation of Polar Bears. For the purpose of the practical implementation of the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar 26

29 Bear Population (October 16, 2000), it is advisable to consider the possibility of preparing a number of legal documents and methodological guidelines in the field of conservation, reproduction, management, inventory, and monitoring of this polar bear population, in particular, with a view to ensure appropriate control over the products of possible indigenous polar bear harvesting so as to prevent adverse impact of this activity on other polar bear populations in the Russian Arctic. Of exceptional significance and relevance is the cooperation with international environmental NGOs, charity foundations and other non-governmental organizations. This cooperation not only provides certain financial support for conservation efforts, but also facilitates exchange of ideas, access to international best practice, and joint activities of Russian and foreign specialists aimed at polar bear conservation and research across the whole range of the species Improvement of the Legal Framework In order to improve the effectiveness of the Russian environmental legislation and enforcement practices in the field of polar bear conservation, it is recommended to: introduce norms providing a legal foundation for a labeling system for legally taken polar bear skins; introduce legal norms establishing the liability of persons providing online resources for advertising bear skins for sale, and the liability for acquisition of products of illegal hunting; introduce changes and amendments to the Federal Law dated November 23, 1995, 174-FZ On Environmental Expert Review requiring a state environmental expert review of design documentation of any capital construction projects to be implemented in a polar bear habitat area; provide for further improvement of federal and regional legislation and preparation of sectoral regulations in the field of polar bear conservation, reproduction, management, inventory, and monitoring Improvement of the SPNA Network Since the existing system of specially protected natural areas does not provide for an effective protection of the most significant polar bear habitats, it is recommended to continue efforts on the further development of the SPNA network. For this purpose, it is advisable to incorporate proposals for the creation of SPNAs of various types and levels, providing for the protection of the most important polar bear habitats, in the process of preparing the draft federal spatial plan with regard to federal SPNAs (a draft scheme of development and siting of federal SPNAs) and the processes of preparing draft regional spatial plans with regard to regional SPNAs (draft schemes of development and siting of regional SPNAs). Particular emphasis should be placed on the creation of a network of marine SPNAs in the areas of increased biological productivity (hydrological fronts, 27

30 28 intense upwelling zones, flaw zones, the pack ice edge etc.). These areas are cha-racterized by a high density of marine mammals, including the polar bear. Many such areas dynamically change in space and time; pelagic communities have a pronounced seasonal development cycle. Therefore it is advisable to establish in such locations marine SPNAs or protective zones with a permanent or temporary ban or restrictions on the economic activities that may disrupt the ecosystem balance or cause damage to marine wildlife, including the polar bear Improvement of the Effectiveness of Polar Bear Conservation outside SPNAs Polar bears are characterized by a dispersed distribution within their range and typically do not form large long-term concentrations. An exception is areas with a large concentration of food sources. It is advisable to strengthen conservation efforts in such areas and maternity denning areas located outside SPNAs. The effectiveness of polar bear conservation outside SPNAs, including the effectiveness of prevention and suppression of poaching, to a significant extent depends on the support from the state and executive authorities of the Russian regions, and on active efforts of the public. Measures on the improvement of polar bear conservation outside SPNAs can be effective if they are planned and implemented in a systematic manner, ensure legal compliance at the local level, and are based on coordinated joint actions of the RF Ministry for Natural Resources and the Environment, the Federal Supervisory Natural Resource Management Service and its regional braches, the Federal Security Service, the Federal Border Guard Service, the transport police, competent state authorities of the Russian regions, other interested authorities and local communities. It is advisable to include the following components in the above mentioned system of measures: development and implementation of an integrated system for the protection of polar bear habitats based on their ecological significance to polar bear populations, vulnerability, and traditional uses by indigenous communities; restrictions on economic activities in the key polar bear habitat areas; education of the local population on the need for polar bear conservation and liability for illegal harvesting of polar bears; measures on the prevention of human-bear conflicts (in particular, by deterring bears) and associated forced kills, including the development of guidelines on human-bear conflict prevention; measures on the development and implementation of a system for labeling of legally taken bear skins; measures on gathering intelligence on illegal trade in polar bear skins and other parts and derivatives, in particular, with the involvement of the local population in information gathering;

31 creation of the State Special Polar Bear Inspectorate similar to the existing State Special Tiger Inspectorate; creation and support of the functioning of bear patrols non-governmental inspectorates aimed at the conservation and management of polar bear populations and the protection and restoration of their habitats with the involvement of local residents in the key polar bear habitat areas; identification of cases of transporting illegally produced parts and derivatives of polar bears, monitoring of the respective sales markets, including the sales of polar bear skins via the Internet; suppressing channels of illegal transportation of polar bear skins and other parts and derivatives, as well as illegal trade in bear skins. In preparing regional socio-economic development programs, priority should be given to programs and projects causing minimum possible impacts on the environment and polar bears. An example of such a program is an ecotourism development program, whose success directly depends on the degree of conservation of Arctic ecosystems and availability of such large animals as polar bears for observations. It is also necessary to develop other mechanisms for increasing the interest of local communities in polar bear conservation. 29

32 8.5. Scientific Research Modern scientific data and achievements provide a foundation for the conservation of biodiversity, including rare and endangered species. At the same time, many biological features of the polar bears of the Russian Arctic have not been studied to a sufficient extent yet. In particular: there is not enough reliable scientific data on the key parameters of the populations, including their size and sex and age structure, distribution, movements and lifecycle of polar bears and their prey species, as well as bear relationships with humans and other species; there is not enough data on the impact on polar bears of environmental pollution and changes in the state of preferred habitats, mainly changes in the area and condition of sea ice associated with climate warming. It is worth mentioning that modern scientific research on polar bears requires costly activities involving aircraft, satellite tracking and remote sensing methods etc. Therefore an effective research program should be based on the system of international cooperation, which will facilitate the exchange of scientific ideas and international best practices, as well as joint research projects with the involvement of Russian and foreign specialists, also providing for certain financial support. The development and staged implementation of the scientific research program should cover the following areas: study of the current range of the species and population size, and mapping bear distribution with the resulting materials to be used as a primary database; more accurate identification of the population structure of the polar bear using molecular genetic and other state-of-the-art methods; study of the sex and age distribution and demographic parameters of bear population, and of spatial and temporal distribution of the animals depending on their sex, age and environmental factors; study of polar bear relationships with humans and other animal species; study of the impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on the population sizes and changes in the polar bear habitats with particular attention to the impact of environmental pollutants, pathogenic microorganisms and climate change on the polar bear populations; study of the areas of increased biological productivity and high density of marine mammals, including polar bears (hydrological fronts, intense upwelling zones, flaw zones, the pack ice edge etc.), identification of the key polar bear habitats, their boundaries, and the processes of their redistribution. Particular attention should be paid to applied research on the development and implementation of measures to minimize human-bear conflicts. Also of importance is regular publishing of up-to-date summaries of the state of polar bear populations, conducted conservation activities and their effectiveness. 30

33 8.6. Monitoring of Polar Bear Populations Monitoring of the state of polar bear populations implies a system for longterm tracking of population sizes, distributions and other population parameters, and of the state of habitats of all polar bear populations for the purpose of timely identification, analysis, and forecast of possible changes against the backdrop of natural processes and under the influence of natural factors. Monitoring of polar bear populations is particularly relevant at the present time, when a substantial body of information on the environmental change caused by pollution and climate change has been accumulated. According to the existing Russian legislation, state inventory and monitoring of wildlife populations within a region of the Russian Federation, except for animals within federal specially protected natural areas, are performed by state authorities of the respective region in the field of wildlife conservation and management. However, it should be noted that this kind of work requires considerable financial resources. Monitoring of the state of polar bear populations includes the following parameters: population size, its changes and trends between years; sex, age, spatial, and social structure of the population and its trend; reproduction rate and its trend; spatial distribution, population density; seasonal and daily movement of polar bears; physiological condition of the animals, including physical and reproductive indictors; concentrations of pollutants accumulated in the organs and tissues of polar bears, and their impact on the organism including, in particular, immune and endocrine systems (of particular importance is monitoring of organochlorines, which are characterized by high degrees of lipophilicity, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification). The following major methods are used for monitoring of the state of polar bear populations: long-term tagging of animals with subsequent capture; periodic aerial counts of polar bears; using population condition indices. Long-term tagging of animals with subsequent capture is the most effective but at the same time the most costly method of population monitoring. The analysis of information obtained by means of this method allows to estimate not only the population size, but also its sex and age structure, and then, based on the results, estimate the population recovery rate. 31

34 32 Aerial counting of animals can be effectively used only in the areas with high density of polar bears. In the low-density areas, where animals are sparse and dif-ficult to notice, the cost of flight can be very high, while statistical errors in calculating the population size can also be very high. In addition, aerial counts do not allow researchers to estimate a number of important population parameters, which can provide valuable insights into changes in the state of the population. Due to the variability of population condition indices, it is recommended to use them for monitoring of the population status in case when the resources available are insufficient for conducting aerial counts or long-term tagging with subsequent capture. In addition to the number of maternity dens, various morphometric and physiological parameters, as well as changes in the range, seasonal distribution and preferred habitats, and other parameters can be used as such indices. Ideally, monitoring of polar bear populations should be accompanied by monitoring of the key prey species. Monitoring of polar bear habitats implies not only observing existing parameters of environmental factors, but also forecasting possible changes at the ecosystem level. Observations in the following areas are essential for forecasting those changes: climatic changes affecting polar bear habitats; cases of contamination of marine ecosystems with persistent organic pollutants, hydrocarbons and heavy metals; decreases in and/or transformation of habitats as a result of economic activities. Valuable information on the state of polar bear populations can be obtained from traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples, or by analyzing available data on taken bears Prevention and Resolution of Human-Bear Conflicts The causes and circumstances of polar bear attacks on humans can be grouped into several categories: Bears visiting settlements, polar stations, mining sites, dumps, marine mammal and fish dressing sites etc. It is there that a situation that is dangerous to humans occurs most often bears driven to extremity by starvation or diseases become insensitive to the noise and means of deterring. Humans deliberately approaching polar bears or their lairs. Recently, the Far North has been visited by a growing number of people virtually unfamiliar with the habits of polar bears and the natural environment in which they live. This contributes to the increase in the number of human-bear conflicts. Accidental human-bear encounters outside settlements. The number of such encounters has been increasing due to widespread use of motorized vehicles.

35 Each particular case requires a special approach toward preventing a humanbear conflict. It is necessary to take all possible measures to prevent bear visits to human settlements and bear attacks on humans and to strengthen the oversight of the use of rifled and smooth bore firearms, aircraft and land vehicles in the mainland tundra and on Arctic islands, and of the validity of grounds for killing polar bears. It is also necessary to prepare safety rules for avoiding conflicts in case of a humanbear encounter, to make sure that the local population in the polar bear habitat area is informed of the rules of avoiding conflicts, and to develop guidelines regarding the rules of storing marine mammal carcasses and dressing products at hunting bases and dressing sites Awareness Raising and Education A critical factor of polar bear conservation is the interest of the local population in the successful achievement of this objective, their deliberate adherence to the respective recommendations and restrictions, and the desire to make a personal contribution to environmental protection activities. The criteria for the effectiveness of awareness raising activities include a positive attitude of the local population toward polar bear conservation activities and their readiness to provide support to such activities, as demonstrated by a decreased number of environmental offences in the Russian Arctic, an increased number of participants of voluntary environmental actions, and changes to economic practices made to comply with the restrictions necessary for polar bear conservation. In order to ensure the effectiveness of polar bear conservation efforts, it is necessary to fulfill the following objectives: promotion of the public perception of the polar bear as a unique species of exceptional biological, ecological, and aesthetic value; promotion of an attitude of care toward the polar bear, which is a species of particular importance for the preservation of the spiritual culture and habits of indigenous peoples; the mastering by the local population of scientifically grounded nature management methods, which guarantee the absence of any damage to polar bears; adoption, by rural and regional community gatherings, of internal rules and restrictions regarding the taking and use of polar bears; preservation of the spiritual culture and habits of indigenous peoples, promotion of traditional knowledge, rituals and habits aimed at polar bear conservation and fostering an attitude of respect toward the animal. 33

36 9. STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION PARTNERS The effective implementation of this Strategy of Polar Bear Conservation requires continuous cooperation between the state authorities, research and other bodies related to wildlife conservation and management, non-governmental organizations and associations, as well as the active engagement of the public. It is the Russian state that bears the main responsibility for effective conservation of polar bears at the level of the Russian Federation as a whole. Indigenous peoples, as bearers of traditional knowledge, are to play a special role in such cooperation. The engagement of the local population and indigenous communities should be based on the existing or newly created non-governmental organizations representing their interests. In addition, this Strategy can be implemented in cooperation with international environmental organizations. Such multilateral cooperation system facilitates the effective implementation of environmental initiatives in the field of polar bear conservation and study. 34

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38 Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution All - Russian Scientific Research Institute for Nature Conservation