Legal and ethical considerations in the use of immobilizing drugs, using Zimbabwe and South Africa as examples 1
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1 CONTENTS Chapter 1 Legal and ethical considerations in the use of immobilizing drugs, using Zimbabwe and South Africa as examples General control of drugs Licensing the use of game capture drugs Naming of drugs Records of drug use in Zimbabwe Additional legal considerations in ZImbabwe South African Veterinary Council s Policy on the use of immobilizing agents Ethical considerations in the use of immobilizing agents for wildlife management Definition of ethics How to be ethical in wildlife immobilization Conclusions 11 CHAPTER 2 BASIC PHYSIOLOGY The cell The physiology of the nervous system Classification of the different functions of the nervous system Functional anatomy The function of the sympathetic nervous system The function of the parasympathetic nervous system The cardiovascular system Functional anatomy The heart Systemic circulation Respiratory system Functional anatomy Ventilation of the lungs inspiration and expiration Gaseous exchange The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood Regulation of respiration The importance of respiratory physiology in the immobilization of wildlife Digestion Glossary 37 CHAPTER 3 BASIC PHARMACOLOGY Pharmacokinetics: What the body does to a drug Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion Pharmacodynamics: What a drug does to the body Drug dosage Drug stability, formulation and calculations Drug stability Drug formulation Calculations 48 iii
2 CHAPTER 4 APPLIED PHARMACOLOGY Attributes of an ideal immobilizing drug General mode of action Pharmacology of opioids Potency Induction Side effects Reversal Safety Opioid drugs Drug reversal antagonists The pharmacology of opioid antagonists Opioid antagonists Pharmacology of the cyclohexylamines Neuromuscular blockers Tranquillizers and sedatives Adrenergic neurotransmission Pharmacology of tranquillizers Butyrophenone derivatives Long-acting tranquillizers and others Pharmacology of sedatives Diazepam Midazolam Benzodiazepine antagonists Imidazole group: α-2 agonists α-2 antagonists Other drugs 78 Summary of immobilizing drugs and their effects 80 CHAPTER 5 STRESS AND CAPTURE-RELATED DEATH Pathology Trauma (injury) Respiratory failure Hyperthermia Capture myopathy Bloat Aspiration Stress The stage of alarm The stage of resistance or adaptation The stage of exhaustion Shock Maladaptation The eleven commandments to prevent and reduce stress 88 iv
3 CHAPTER 6 Safety and first aid in the field weapons, drugs and animals Firearm and rifle range safety Rifle range rules Prevention and management of capture drug accidents Precautions for prevention of capture drug accidents First-aid kit Emergency kit Management of capture drug accidents Stimulants Summary response in an emergency Specific response to particular capture drugs Opioids (narcotics) Neuromuscular blocking agents Other drugs Tranquillizers, hypnotics and sedatives Animal safety 101 CHAPTER 7 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS Planning a capture operation Objective Chemical restraint Factors to consider Common causes of failures or adverse effects of chemical restraint Physical restraint Physical force Confinement Ropes Nets The net gun Physical barriers Animal safety Reflection 129 References 129 CHAPTER 8 HELICOPTER AND FIXED-WING USE IN WILDLIFE WORK Choices: makes and models Helicopter Robinsons Helicopter Hughes Helicopter Bell Jet Ranger (206 series) Helicopter Squirrel (Eurocopter AS350 B1, B2 and B3) Other helicopters Fixed-winged aircraft Basic helicopter theory and safety Factors affecting helicopter performance Understanding the height vs. velocity graph or dead man s curve General safety around the helicopter Planning and practical applications Overall planning In-field planning Summary and key points 142 v
4 CHAPTER 9 CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION INDIVIDUAL SPECIES REQUIREMENTS General capture information on ungulates Pharmacological principles Darting principles Large ungulates Bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus dorcas) and blesbok (D. p. phillipsi) African buffalo, savannah (Syncerus c. caffer) and forest buffalo (Syncerus c. nanus) Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) a Eland, common (Taurotragus oryx) b Eland, Lord Derby or giant (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus/gigas) Gemsbok (Oryx gazella) Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) Hartebeest, red (Alcelaphus buselaphus) Hartebeest, Lichtenstein s (Sigmoceros lichtensteini) Hirola (Beatragus hunteri) Impala (Aepyceros melampus) and black-faced impala (A. m. petersi) Kob, Ugandan (Kobus kob thomasi) and white-eared (Kobus kob leucotis) Kudu, greater (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and lesser (Tragelaphus imberbis) Lechwe (Kobus leche) a Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) b Mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) Reedbuck, common (Redunca arundinum) Reedbuck, mountain (Redunca fulvorufula) Rhebok, grey (Pelea capreolus) Roan (Hippotragus equinus) Sable (Hippotragus niger) Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) Tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus) and tiang (tiang hartebeest Damaliscus lunatus tiang) Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) Wildebeest, black (Connochaetes gnou) Wildebeest, blue (Connochaetes taurinus) Zebra Smaller ungulates Duiker, blue (Philantomba monticola) Duiker, red (Cephalophus natalensis) Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) Grysbok, Cape (Raphicerus melanotis) Grysbok, Sharpe s (Raphicerus sharpei) Suni (Neotragus moschatus) Duiker, grey or common (Sylvicapra grimmia) Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) Oribi (Ourebi ourebi) Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) Mega-herbivores Elephant, savanna (L. africana africana) and forest (L. africana cyclotis) Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) White or square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) Black or hook-lipped rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) Wild pigs Warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) Carnivores Introduction Drugs and drug mixtures used Characteristics of cyclohexylamine immobilization 239 vi
5 9.7 The immobilization of large felids Lion (Panthera leo) Leopard (Panthera pardus) Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Small felids 248 Caracal (Caracal caracal), serval (Leptailurus serval), African wild cat (Felis silvestris), small spotted cat (Felis nigripes) 9.9 Viverrids and mustelids 250 Large- and small-spotted genet (Genetta tigrina and Genetta genetta), mongoose, civet (Civettictis civetta), African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), honey badger (Mellivora capensis), striped polecat (Ictonyx striatus) 9.10 Canids 251 Side-striped jackal (Canis adustos), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), wild dog (Lycaon pictus) 9.11 Hyenids 253 Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus), brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) 9.12 Primates 254 Vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops), samango monkey (Cercopithecus mitis), chacma baboon (Papio ursinus), mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) 9.13 Reptiles and amphibians General Snakes Chelonians Crocodilians Birds General Ostriches 262 Selected references for primate, reptile and bird anaesthesia 264 CHAPTER 10 DRUG-INJECTING EQUIPMENT Syringes and needles Syringes Needle selection Syringe filling procedure Pole syringe Equipment sterility Blow pipes and powered blow pipes 270 CHAPTER 11 BALLISTICS AND PROJECTILE DARTING SYSTEMS Important concepts in darting Ballistics Dart impact comparison 271 Dart systems and concepts Tailpieces and needles: an overview Tailpieces Needles Non-pressurized and pressurized dart syringes Cap-Chur syringes Instructions for use of Cap-Chur dart syringes Pneu-Dart syringes Dist-Inject syringes 279 vii
6 11.7 Dan-Inject and Telinject syringes Pax-Arms syringes Tele-Dart syringes Kruger National Park darts Transmitter darts Alternative dart designs Eco-Dart syringes Professional Wildlife Equipment (PWE) Home-made darts 285 References 285 CHAPTER 12 Dart projectors Palmer Cap-Chur equipment Cap-Chur short-range co 2 dart projector Cap-Chur long-range co 2 dart projector Cap-Chur extra-long-range dart projector Pneu-Dart equipment Dist-Inject equipment Dan-Inject equipment Telinject equipment Pax-Arms equipment Tele-Dart equipment Additional information and innovations Adjusting power Sights and scopes Additional information and comments on dart gun systems 302 References 303 CHAPTER 13 OTHER RESTRAINT TOOLS Net gun Ropes, hobbles and tape Ropes Hobbles Tape Slinging straps Catch poles and nets Catch pole and grasp Nets Traps, cages and leg holds 308 References 309 CHAPTER 14 ANCILLARY TREATMENTS IN WILDLIFE CAPTURE AND CARE Stress and shock Clinical signs of shock Treatment Capture myopathy over straining disease Treatment Hyperthermia 313 viii
7 14.4 Bloat and regurgitation Care of eyes Parasitism Local and/or systemic disease 316 CHAPTER 15 OVERVIEW OF CAPTURE METHODS AND TRANSPORT OF WILD ANIMALS Factors affecting success of capture Condition of animal Age Ambient temperature Physical terrain Boma siting Time of capture Human contact Timing of capture and control of animals Equipment Disturbance Provision of food and water Delays Mixing species Driving animals across territorial boundaries Crowding Transport containers Unloading Methods of capture Capture by darting Mass capture using the plastic boma Net bomas Net lines Bull dogging Drop or pop-up boma Net gun Cage traps Additional restraint measures Transportation of game Guidelines Crates Transport vehicles Management during loading and transportation 329 CHAPTER 16 POST-CAPTURE BOMA MANAGEMENT Bomas: siting and construction Management of stress Nutrition General boma management Disease prevention and surveillance 336 References 337 ix
8 CHAPTER 17 NECROPSY TECHNIQUES General rules of necropsy Basic techniques 340 References 346 Necropsy form 347 Appendix 17.1: Necropsy procedure for birds 348 Appendix 17.2: Necropsy procedure for reptiles 349 CHAPTER 18 Notes on developing an immobilizing kit for the field And the inclusion of data sheets Specific items Tackle or toolbox Syringes Needles Essential drugs Example of essential drug list for immobilizing ungulates Miscellaneous drugs Other medical and practical equipment Selection of darts and appropriate needles Ancillary equipment for use with a dart gun Transport cases Other equipment Examples of capture sheets used in the field South African National Parks Wildlife Conservation Society Field Veterinary Programme Wildlife Unit, Department Of Veterinary Services, Zimbabwe 359 APPENDIX 1 IMPORTANT CONTACTS ADDRESSES, AND WEBSITES 361 APPENDIX 2 ZIMBABWE S COURSE ON THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CAPTURE OF WILD ANIMALS 374 index 375 x
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