THE SOCIAL-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ROAD TRAFFIC CONGESTION IN DAR ES SALAAM REGION

Transcription

1 THE SOCIAL-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ROAD TRAFFIC CONGESTION IN DAR ES SALAAM REGION By Abel D Elisonguo A Dissertation Submitted to Mzumbe University, Dar Es Salaam Campus College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Science in Human Resource Management (Msc. HRM) of Mzumbe University 2013 i

2 CERTIFICATION We, the undersigned, certify that we have read and hereby recommend for acceptance by the Mzumbe University, a dissertation entitled: The Social Economic Impact of Road Traffic Congestion in Dar es Salaam Region, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the degree of Master of Science in Human Resource Management of Mzumbe University. Major Supervisor Internal Examiner Accepted for the Board of DEAN/DIRECTOR, FACULTY/DIRECTORATE/SCHOOL/BOARD i

3 DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT I, Abel D Elisonguo, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University for similar or any other degree award. Signature. Date / / This dissertation is a copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the copyright Act 1999 and other international and national enactments, in that behalf, on intellectual property. It may not be produced by any means in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealings, for research or private study, critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written permission of Mzumbe University, on behalf of the author. ii

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Give thanks to the Lord, for HE is good. His love endures forever (Psalm 136:1). I would like to take this opportunity to give thanks to the Almighty God for His endless love, blessings, care, concern, protection, and guidance throughout my lifetime of studies. He has been the wind beneath my wings. His Grace and Mercy has brought me thus far and I am grateful. To Him be Honor and Glory. Amen! This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of a number of individuals who have made invaluable contributions to me. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr Peter David Kilawe who sponsored my studies. My deepest appreciation and thanks go to and my supervisor Ms. Sarah Richard Mngoya for guidance and constructive criticisms during supervision of this work, that helped me stay focused from the beginning of to the end. Furthermore, I owe many thanks to my esteemed lecturers at Mzumbe University- Dar es Salaam Campus College: Prof. Chungi Prem Chander, Dr. Felician Barongo, Dr. Flora Lucas Kessy, Dr. Madale Mpamila, Dr. Kanty Patrice Feksi Mtey, Mr James Mrema, Mr Venance Shillingi, Mr. Lusekelo Faidon Kasongwa and Ms. Norah Hashim Msuya. I am also grateful to my entire colleagues Msc.HRM students of Thank you very much for your contribution and encouragement. This work would not have been possible without the determined backing of my parents, Mr. and Mrs. David Kilawe for their support since the beginning of my primary education to university, my brothers, sisters and various benefactors who picked up the slack and supported my academic efforts on a daily basis. Thank you all, and may God bless you. iii

5 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my beloved ones Magreth Joachim Ndamallya and Sir Joachim Ndamallya-Congratio Dominae Nostre De Kilimanjaro-(CDNK); for their endless Love, Care, Passion and Concern. iv

6 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSAND ACRONYMS BRT Bus Rapid Transit CDNK Congratio Dominae Nostre De Kilimanjaro DART Dar es Salaam Rapid Transit DSM Dar es Salaam DUTA Dar es Salaam Urban Transport Authority GDP Gross Domestic Product JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency Kms Kilometres MKUKUTA Mkakati wa Kukuza Uchumi na Kupunguza Umaskini Tanzania MOI Muhimbili Orthopaedic Institute NGO s Non-Governmental Organization NIT National Institute of Transportation NTP National Transportation Policy RAHCO Railway Assets Holdings Corporation REPOA Research on Poverty Alleviation RMO-RALG Prime Minister s Office, Regional Administration and Local Government SMEC Australian Corporation and Project Management St Saint STRABAG StrabagGmtl International SUMATRA Surface and Marine Transport Regulatory Authority TANROADS Tanzania National Roads Agency TPDF Tanzania People Defense Force TPF Tanzania Police Force TRC Tanzania Railway Corporation TRL Tanzania Railway Limited UDA Usafiri Dar es Salaam UDSM University of Dar es Salaam VETA Vocational Education and Training Authority v

7 ABSTRACT It is clear and evident that many cities of the world today have serious problems in the smooth running of their daily activities due to traffic congestion. The congestions are the outcome of many factors depending on the level of technological development and economy of the country concerned, which in a way influence the rest of other factors. As far as this study is concerned, an attempt has been made to analyze the social economic impact of road traffic congestion in Dar es Salaam (DSM) region. The objectives that were selected for the study were to examine the social-economic impacts of traffic congestion in Dar es Salaam in various perspectives as well as to identify supporting policies that may need to be put in place to reduce road traffic congestion. The study revealed that road traffic congestion affects highly the residents of DSM, institutions and the government as a whole in various aspects/dimensions. The researcher observed that, the current public transport system in DSM has difficulties in coping with the demographic and spatial growth of the city and in meeting the basic needs of its inhabitants. Access to affordable and quality public transport services is critical for the urban population, as a lack thereof leads to economic, social, and physical isolation, especially in low-income communities, located in the city outskirts, with inadequate access to public transport and other basic urban facilities. In response to the public transport challenges in DSM, it was seen that; an urban development strategy was designed and proposed to introduce a bus rapid transit (BRT) system for the entire city. BRT system elements will contribute to transit objectives/ transit system performance, including reducing travel times, improving reliability, providing identity and a quality image, improving safety and security, increasing capacity and enhancing accessibility. Therefore, for cities in developing countries, BRT is recommended. Most importantly, the urban poor may benefit substantially from the improved accessibility and high-quality service which BRT will bring forth. vi

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATION... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT... ii DEDICATION... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSAND ACRONYMS... v ABSTRACT... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS... vii LIST OF TABLES... xii LIST OF FIGURE... xiii CHAPTER ONE... 1 PROBLEM SETTING Introduction Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Objective of the Study General Objective Specific Objectives Research Questions General Research Question Specific Research Questions: Significance of the Study Scope of the Study Limitations Delimitations Organization of this Dissertation... 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Definition of Traffic Congestion Theory of Social Development vii

9 2.3 Economic theory Employee Work Performance Theory The Causes of Traffic Road Congestion Daladala as the Cause of Road Traffic Congestion Traffic Influencing Events Population Increase and Vehicle Ownership Insufficient Road Width Inadequate Parking Space and Wrong Parking in the City Centre Poor Vehicle Maintenance Poor Planning Road Works Drivers Misbehavior Poor Traffic Management Disproportional Growth between Economy and Infrastructure Conceptual Framework and Research Model CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction Research Design Population of the Study/Unit of Inquiry Sampling Procedures and the Sample Size Reasons for Sampling Techniques/Methods Employed Purposive or Judgment Sampling Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling; Data Collection Methods Primary Data Secondary Data Data Collection and Techniques Interviews Questionnaire viii

10 3.7 Data Analysis Plan CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction Descriptive Statistics/Characteristics of the Respondents Type of Employment Employment Position Assessment of the Research Objectives Delays Lateness Wastage of time Emergence Vehicles Social-Economic Activities Loss from the Road Traffic Congestion Fuel Consumption Decrease in Productivity/Low Economic Growth Increase in Accidents The Use of Motorcycles as Alternative Means of Transport has increased the Rate of Accidents Inability to Estimate Travel Times Leading to Drivers Allocating more Time to Travel "just in case", and Less Time on Productive Activities Due to early Wake up and late Coming to Home Place; Many Workers are Victims of Risks Physical/mental complications and Effect on work performance Tiredness and Stress reduce Pork Performance Vehicles Emissions during Congestion Pollute Air and Consequently Affect People s Health Long Commutes alone Have Health Impacts such as fatigue, digestion difficulties, and pains and increased heart rate Supporting Policies to Reduce Road Traffic Congestion The Introduction of Commuter train in DSM ix

11 4.5.2 Commuter train has Improved Social-economic Activities The BRT Project in DSM The BRT project and Social-Economic Activities in DSM Conclusion CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction Social-Economic Impacts of Traffic Congestion in DSM Fuel Consumption Increasing Operating Costs Wastage of Time Just in Case Time Money Family Effects Students Relationship between Road Traffic Congestion and the Work Performance Delays Loss from the Road Traffic Congestion Emergency Vehicles Increase in Accidents Physical/Mental Complications and Effect on Work Performance Discomfort Environmental Pollution Health Effects Supporting Policies to Reduce Road Traffic Congestion Tanzania Railways Limited Introduction of BRT in DSM Region Current and Future Strategies to Alleviate the Road Traffic Congestion TANROADS-Dar es Salaam Region Ministry of Works Construction of Flyovers x

12 Construction of Ferries Tanzania Railways Limited Human Resource Implication of the Findings CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summary of the Study Conclusion Suggestions, Comments and Recommendations TANROADS-Dar es Salaam Region Private Investments Construction of Light Railways Review of Transport Policy and Rules Improving Public Transport Collaboration between different Authorities Further areas of Study/Research REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix 2: INTERVIEW GUIDE xi

13 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Population of the Study...25 Table 3.2 Category of Respondents Sampling Method...27 Table 4.1 Respondents Sex...34 xii

14 LIST OF FIGURE Figure 1.1: Conceptual Frame Work...22 Figure 4.1 Respondents Level of Education...34 Figure 4.2 Respondents Employment Level...35 Figure 4.3 Respondents Employment Position...36 Figure 4.4 Delays...37 Figure 4.5 Lateness...37 Figure 4.6 Working Hours are Lost Daily on the Way...38 Figure 4.7 Blocked Traffic Jams with Passage of Emergency Vehicles Travelling to their Destinations...38 Figure 4.8 Road Traffic Congestion has Serious Problems in Mining of the Socio economical Activities...39 Figure 4.9 Road Traffic Congestions and Fuel Consumption...40 Figure 4.10 Road Traffic Congestion Drags on the Productivity and Growth of the Regional Economy...41 Figure 4.11 Accidents...42 Figure 4.12 The Use of Motorcycles and its Relation to Accidents...43 Figure 4.13 Inability to Estimate Travel Time...43 Figure 4.14 Early Wake up and the Associated Risks...44 Figure 4.15 Health Related Complications...44 Figure 4.16 Health Related Complications...45 Figure 4.17 Health Impacts (fatigue, digestion difficulties)...46 Table 4.18 The Introduction of Commuter train in DSM...46 Figure: 4.19 Commuter train and Social-economic Activities...47 Figure 4.20 BRT Project in DSM...48 Figure 4.21 BRT Project and Social-Economic Activities...48 xiii

15 CHAPTER ONE PROBLEM SETTING 1.0 Introduction Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals, services and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. Transport infrastructure consists of fixed installations necessary for transport including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, and aircraft. The forms of transport include public transport which includes the provision of formal and informal transport that is provided collectively by state and private sectors. Fare in the said providers is paid by the passengers. Besides buses operating on public services; many private companies, schools, parastatals and government agencies operate buses to provide transport to and from work for their personnel/employees, trucks dealing with raw materials, services and goods transit. Private transports include privately owned cars, motorcycles, and bicycles. In the past few decades, developing countries have experienced huge population growth (Mistro and Mfinanga, 2011). The increase in population has led to the increase in demand for urban transport, especially in African cities. However, the transport infrastructure in these cities is not appropriate for the road transport demand. This has caused serious road congestion and thus the public transport systems become overloaded. The public transport models in DSM region include trains, buses, minibuses, taxes, bodaboda 1 and bajaji 2. According to the 2002 National Population and Housing 1 Swahili word referring to a motorcycle used for transport business 1

16 Census, the DSM region has a total population of 2,487,288, having increased from 1,360,865 as recorded in 1988 census (PMO-RALG, 2010). The population increase of 1,126,423 people represents an average annual population growth rate of 4.3 percent. The rate is above the national population growth rate of 2.9 percent. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in sub-saharan Africa, with an estimated urban population of almost 4 million inhabitants in 2010 and an annual population growth rate of more than 4% per annum (JICA, 2007). This population growth is not proportional to the improvement and development of the road transport system in the region which in turn causes problems on road transport system. The economic infrastructure of the region is still undeveloped. DSM has a road network of a total length of about 1,950 kms of which only 1120 kms are paved. The region has trunk roads of 260 kilometers length, 542 kms of regional roads and 578 kms of feeder roads. Out of those, 112 kms of regional roads and 98 Kms of feeder roads are not easily accessible during rainy season, and usually create transport complications for the city dwellers from Central Business District (CBD) to their place of residences (PMORALG, 2010.The majority of these roads are of poor surface conditions caused partly by lack of maintenance due to, among other factors, financial constraints. Moreover, most of these roads do not have walkways and bicycle-ways, leading to non-segregation of traffic. The existing road network in the city is inadequate to satisfy the city's densification and expansion. Burdened with the rapid population growth and city expansion, DSM transport sector depicts a situation where the gap between public transportation needs and provision is continuously widening (Olvera et al., 2003).Th is situation has been worsened as public transport is the only alternative for the majority poor or low income earners. Daladala 3 is the main public transport used by many residents in DSM. Currently, there are about 9,541 daladala operating in the rgion (PMORALG, 2010). Despite their number, there is a shortage of public transport supply which has led to the emergence and growth of informal transport (para transit) (Gwilliam, 2002). 2 Swahili word referring to a three wheeled vehicle powered by an engine 3 The Swahili word referring to minibuses which provide transport services in a city or town 2

17 Paratransit operators have filled the gap between the demand for public transport and the decreasing supply and level of service of formal public transport services. Informal public transport dominates most of the public transport markets in developing countries (Armstrong-Wright, 1993; Gwilliam, 2002). Thus urban transport in DSM and, to a lesser extent, in other urban areas is characterized by high levels of congestion, long uncomfortable commuting journeys, overcrowded buses, substantial air pollution, poor road safety, poor pedestrian environment, limited parking facilities and pedestrian pavements, limited urban road investment, and poor traffic management (NIP, 2011). 1.1 Background of the Study Transport is one of the key sectors of the economy. It plays a critical role in day-today economic development activities. It serves as a catalyst in production as it facilitates movement of inputs to production points and evacuates products to storage or market places. Its role is critical to all aspects of social and economic life of society (NTP, 2011). Transport, especially road transport, is a fundamental need for people after food and housing. Through an efficient, safe and affordable transport system, which provides choice in different modes of transport, accessibility of basic needs can be improved; many costs can be saved; productivity can be increased; and thus both human and economic development can be improved. In addition, reduced pollution, less required space for transport and improved road safety lead to improvement of the quality of life (Robin and Wytse, 2011). Pacione et al; (2005) argued that ineffective and inefficient transport systems significantly limit economic development, social opportunities and societal interactions. Access to affordable and good quality public transport services is critical for the urban population, as lack thereof leads to economic, social and physical isolation (Department for International Development, 1999). The problem seems to affect low income- communities located in the city outskirts with inadequate access to public transport and other basic urban facilities (Hine; Olvera et 3

18 al, 2003). Generally, transport is crucial for development because without physical access to resources and markets, health, education and other social services; the quality of life suffers, growth stagnates and poverty reduction cannot be sustained. Motorized transport, with its corresponding negative impacts, contributes for a large part in creating an imbalance between the three aspects of sustainable development: economic growth, social progress and environmental protection (Robin and Wytse, 2011). DSM is the largest industrial, commercial and public administrative center for Tanzania; housing many headquarters of many government ministries and departments, private sectors and Non Governmental Organizations ( NGOs). DSM generates more than 40% of the countries Gross Domestic Product (GDP), contributes 80% of national government domestic revenues. DSM city is still the defacto capital of Tanzania and the centre for political, commercial and industrial activities. Thus, it is still the centre of all economic, social and political activities; locally and internationally, and as such, it is still the centre of all sorts of paraphernalia and is the most densely populated and busiest city in the country (Setebe, 1994). DSM city is characterized by a high proportion of informal development and poverty where nearly 70% of its population lives in informal settlements (World Bank, 2002). Most people cannot afford private car, and around 75% of trips in the city are made by public transport and walking (Olvera et al. 2003; Nkurunziza et al. 2012). When DSM is compared to other towns and cities of the country in terms of business activities, it controls the lion s share of the national economy. In order for business and other social-economic activities to be smoothly and efficiently conducted and accomplished; efficient means of transport is a necessary perquisite. In case a town or city has inefficient means of transport and good facilities for loading and off loading its cargo, performance in terms of provision of goods and services is slow and unproductive. The bigger the number of performance activities, the bigger the 4

19 number of transport fleets are required. And the bigger the number of transport fleets required, the bigger the number of roads and parking space are required. The growth of population, urbanization and household income which create a greater propensity to travel; marked increase in car ownership; and increase in commercial and industrial activity has in turn led to an increase in demands for car transportation (Oni, 1999: UN, 2011). However, such increase is not in line with the expansion of physical infrastructure in the city which is one of the essential facilities in the provision of adequate and effective transport system. If the roads are made impassable through lack of proper facilities to enable the vehicles move efficiently and effectively, the most notable effects are road traffic congestions. The consequence of these traffic congestions is the ineffective and inefficient utilization of material and human resources in particular. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Despite the fact that DSM is a pivot of Tanzania s economy, road traffic congestion is a headache and burning issue to the private and public institutions; and the city dwellers in general. The congestion in the city is associated with increased vehicular queuing and poor accessibility to work and home places especially in the morning and evening hours. The serious road traffic congestions are observable in times between 7:00 9:00 am (the time when most workers are going to their work places), the times between 12:30 02:00 pm (the time when workers go for lunch breaks) and the times between 03:00 08:00 pm when most of workers go back to their home places. Basing on these facts, it can be established that most of workers and people in general do report very late at their work stations such as offices, market places, schools and hospitals. This means that, some may report on time although very tired and with stress and some may not. Others do face the problem of few sleeping hours due to early waking and late sleeping, wastage of time on queues, overtime work as well as few hours to rest at home after work. The time loss of road vehicles because of traffic congestion is determined on the basis of roughly estimated queue lengths, time periods of congestion and the mean 5

20 queue speed (Hansen, 2000). It is evident that people in DSM spent more time in traffic queues than in other dealings. Generally, transport in DSM is chaotic, inefficient, unreliable and dangerous. It negatively affects the society especially the urban poor through loss of productivity, inhibiting human development and reducing the quality of life. All these complications and problems which most of employees and the people of the general public do encounter under different degrees and circumstances are said to be directly associated with the existing road traffic congestion. However, its social-economic impact remains largely unknown and probably not well documented so to speak. Accordingly, the aim of this research was to examine the social-economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region. 1.3 Objective of the Study General Objective This study/paper was aimed at assessing the social-economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region Specific Objectives i. To examine the social-economic impacts of road traffic congestion in Dar es Salaam. ii. To determine the relationship / connection between the existing road traffic congestion and the work performance. iii. To evaluate the loss from the road traffic congestion. iv. To examine the physical/mental complications caused by the traffic congestion that affect work performance. v. To identify supporting policies that may need to be put in place to reduce road traffic congestion. 1.4 Research Questions General Research Question What are the social-economic impacts of road traffic congestion in DSM region? Specific Research Questions: i. What are the social-economic impacts of road traffic congestion in DSM? ii. What is the relationship between traffic congestion and work performance? 6

21 iii. What is the loss from the road traffic congestion? iv. What are the complications caused by road traffic congestion that affects work performance? v. What are the supporting policies that need to be put in place to reduce the road traffic congestion? 1.5 Significance of the Study It s clear and evident that road traffic congestion is a sounding phenomena, a burning issue among the residents of all cadres within the city of DSM. This is due to the fact that every person living, working or even who made a visit within the city is affected or touched differently by the existing road traffic congestions, leaving aside its general impact on peoples work performance in the city. This research paper was expecting to show how the traffic congestion has affected the residents of DSM region socially and economically. Specifically, it showed how it is connected to work performance and other socialeconomic aspects of daily life. The research came out with a clear picture on the degree or the estimated loss so far caused by the traffic congestion. Since the immediate effect of traffic congestion is lateness, this paper showed how it affects people in their daily duties/programs, as well as trying to find out if there are any mental or physical complications related to traffic congestion that could hinder people in their daily routines. The research will help us to know various philosophies or techniques that people and organizations do opt to cope with the problem. The paper has presented various strategies employed and those in process of being implemented for the sake of alleviating the problem of traffic congestion in the city of DSM. Above all, the research provided relevant recommendations and suggestions in accordance to the nature of the findings as well as relating it to the current national transportation policy. Also, the research pin pointed some areas which require further investigation in the future on condition that there will be a gap between it and other studies on the problem. 7

22 1.6 Scope of the Study The study was conducted in DSM because the city has the highest level of traffic jam out of all cities and regions in Tanzania. it is also the highest populated city with almost all socio political and economic sectors being public, private and international. Due to that case, it has a great number of employers and employees both from formal and informal sectors; being private, public or international. The people under different cadres, as shown above, depend on the private and public transport. This shows that they are directly linked with the road traffic congestion. Since the researcher was not able to include all people living and working in DSM, four organizations from both public and private sectors were chosen for the study to represent all formal employees in the city of DSM. The number of employees from those organizations was enough to serve as a model to reveal the social-economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM. Moreover, few learning institutions were included in the study. These were three primary schools, three secondary schools and one higher learning institution. The study was also conducted in various public organizations such as TANROADS, SUMATRA, Ministry of Transport, Dar es Salaam City Council and its Municipalities and Traffic Tanzania Police Force. The rationale behind this selection is that these areas have a direct link with the issue of transportation in the city of DSM and in special way road transport. Hence, the information from the respective authorities had a significant role to the study at hand. It was also done to avoid biasness which could happen if the research was based upon the residents of DSM only. Another area of study was on drivers and conductors of public transport commonly known as daladala; taxi drivers, motorcycles (bajaji and bodaboda) drivers as well as business men and women in Kariakoo market. These groups were representing the cadre of employees from informal sectors. 8

23 1.7 Limitations During the study, researcher faced a number of challenges including time. The time for the study was not enough to carry out intensive and extensive study because some of the information was not easily and quickly available. The fund provided for the study which was personally funded was not enough to meet all expenses like transport, meal allowance, paying researchers assistants, and stationery. When conducting research, the researcher encountered administrative challenges. Many respondents especially those who were supposed to use questionnaires, could not fill the questionnaire on time, and others misplaced them to the extent that the researcher was required to redistribute other copies. Also, many respondents had a notion of getting some money from the researcher especially when they knew that he was conducting a research as a requirement for degree award. The introduction letter from the university the researcher had did not convince them. 1.8 Delimitations The limitations explained in 1.7 were addressed as follows: The researcher opted initially to use public holidays and weekends to conduct the research. Since the option was not seen as effective, the researcher decided to take annual leave (28 days) which he effectively managed to solve the problem of time and was able to collect, analyze and interpret the collected data on time. The researcher borrowed a substantial amount of money from other sources. This enabled him to have a wide coverage of study area as well as studying a relative good sample size. He also took a time to inform respondents that there was no money and that the study was for fulfillment of degree course. After long explanations, respondents agreed to participate and collaborated effectively and efficiently in the study. 1.9 Organization of this Dissertation This study consists of six chapters. Chapter one presents the introduction and background to the problem, statement of the problem, the main and specific 9

24 objectives of the study and research questions. Other sections presented in this chapter are: scope, significance, limitation, delimitation and organization of the study. Chapter two deals with literature related to the study. It covers introduction, definition of terms, theoretical review, empirical review and the conceptual framework. Chapter three comprises research methodology in which research paradigm, research design, study area, population, sample and sampling techniques, instrumentation, validity and reliability of instruments, administration of instruments and data analysis plan were spelt out. Chapter four presents data and their analysis. Chapter five deals with discussion of the findings and lastly, chapter six covers the summary, conclusion, recommendations and further areas of study. 10

25 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction Any meaningful activity should be able to generate or expand knowledge capacity (Rwegoshora, 2006). It may do so by identifying certain knowledge gaps which exist and hence open up a new set of fruitful inquiry. In order to avoid a duplication of research efforts, a researcher ought to survey comprehensively the literature pertinent to the problem. This could be used to identify the missing links. Thus, a review of various theories and empirical literature relevant to the assessment on the socialeconomic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region was done relevantly to the conceptual frame work presented. A theoretical framework is the conceptual model of how theories make logical sense of the relationship between the several variables that have been identified as important to the problem (Sekaran, 2003). It can be viewed as both a foundation and a pillar of a research project. A research without a conceptual framework cannot be focused since the researcher does not know what data to collect (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). Therefore, theories aid a researcher in understanding the problem and guiding the study. 2.1 Definition of Traffic Congestion Congestion is essentially a relative phenomenon that is linked to the difference between the road way system performances that users expect and how the system performs. Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing. The most common example is the physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demands exceeds or is greater enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of traffic stream, it results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, it is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarly up. In other words, 11

26 congestion can be seen as a situation in which demand for forward space exceeds supply. Urban traffic congestion must be understood in the wider context of city dynamics and agglomeration benefits. Traffic congestion in the urban area is often the outcome of successful urban economic development, employment; housing and cultural policies that make people want to live and work relatively close to each other and attract firms to benefit from the gains in productivity derived. There are many indications that even though they may not be thrilled by the prospect, urban road users are prepared to live with crowded roads so long as they derive other benefits from living and working in the cities. Time may be one of the most important factors to determine whether a transport system is efficient or otherwise. If the ratio between time taken by private car and time taken by public transport is less than one, the private transport would be more efficient. Suppose it takes 45 minutes to travel from Mwenge to City Centre by private car and 65 minutes by public transport buses (daladala). The ratio between 45 minutes by private car and 65 minutes by public transport will be equal to 0.7. In this case, private transport usage would be preferable. On the other hand, if the reverse is true the ratio between 65 minutes by private car and 45 minutes by public transport will be 1.4. In this case, public transport would be preferred since it takes less time for one to reach their destination. Therefore, the lower the ratio, the higher the use of private car and; thus the higher the increase of road traffic jam. 2.2 Theory of Social Development Social development can be summarily described as the process of organizing human energies and activities at higher levels to achieve greater results (H ardin, 1968). Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative changes in the structure and framework of society, which help the society to better realize its aims and objectives. 12

27 A society's progress is determined by its ability to grow and change. The organizations and structures that drive its workings directly affect its ability to function. A theory of social development examines the strengths and resources available within a society and how they are used to promote social development (Jacquelyn, 2008). A theory of social development identifies the factors that influence the growth of a society and how those factors affect change. Growth occurs according to a process of change that brings out the inherent strengths and abilities of a society. These changes affect how a society functions and how it is structured. Social development can take place on political, social, economic or technological levels. However, a society's economic progress is a significant indicator of social development. Organizational change within a society is a key factor influencing its social development. An increased awareness of how a society's available resources can be better utilized provides the direction needed for effective organizational change to take place. Social development theory points to how this greater awareness allows societies to harness and direct their strengths and resources towards more productive ends. The result is a more efficient and directed output that benefits the society as a whole or works to improve the social conditions within specific segments of the population. Physical changes within the social development of a society are borne out of the accepted models of productivity and organization that sustain its current existence. Revised agricultural methods, newly formed public assistance programs and the use of alternative energy sources are examples of physical changes. Existing conditions may be unable to meet the needs of the people in terms of providing for their survival. Conditions may escalate to the point where the structures within the society begin to break down. Medicare, the social security retirement system and the stock market are examples of structures within a society. As a result, existing patterns of organization become ineffective and further aggravate developing problems. These conditions set the stage for change to occur. 13

28 Social development theory links a society's level of social interaction to its ability to change and grow. The level of interaction points to the interconnections that exist between the different functional areas within its structure. An example of this would be how closely a manufacturer and a retailer work together to ensure the success of a product. Social development occurs when organizational structures begin to work together to achieve a common goal by redefining their objectives and the methods used to carry them out. 2.3 Economic theory Congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons (Hardin, 1968). Because roads in most places are free at the point of usage, there is little financial incentive for drivers not to over-use them, up to the point where traffic collapses into a jam, when demand becomes limited by opportunity cost. Privatization of highways and road pricing has both been proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or road works, which may reduce the road's capacity below normal levels. Economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day (Steven, 1990). In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing (ability to pay) or by queuing (first-come first-serve); congestion is an example of the latter. Instead of the traditional solution of making the "pipe" large enough to accommodate the total demand for peak-hour vehicle travel (a supply -side solution), either by widening roadways or increasing "flow pressure" via automated highway systems, Downs advocates greater use of road pricing to reduce congestion (a demand-side solution, effectively rationing demand), in turn plowing the revenues generated, there from, into public transportation projects. A 2011 study in the American Economic Review indicates that there may be a "fundamental law of road congestion." The researchers, from the University of Toronto and the London School of Economics, analyzed data from the U.S. Highway 14

29 Performance and Monitoring System for 1983, 1993 and 2003, as well as information on population, employment, geography, transit, and political factors. They determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled (VKT) increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that building new roads and widening existing the ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level (Duranton, and Turner, 2011). 2.4 Employee Work Performance Theory A major concern of organizations centers on the performance of employees (Agarwala, 2001). Competition has become a way of life for most organizations. Organizations are in constant war of competition striving to attain the so called sustainable competitive advantage (that is performing better than the rivals within the same respective industry). To survive and be successful; it is important for organizations to remain competitive. Since human resources are a unique and valuable source of competitive advantage, organizations must ensure the most effective and efficient utilization of these resources; simply because the ultimate source of value is people. It is human resource that creates value in any competitive organizations. Thus the achievement of any organization centers on the performance of employees (Agarwala, 2011). Performance refers to what an employee does or does not do on the job. Employee performance includes, for example, quantity of output and quality of outputs. When employees do not perform according to expectations, or when they underperform; it is difficult for a firm to achieve its strategic goals and objectives. Under such conditions, the firm will not be able to achieve a competitive advantage. 2.5 The Causes of Traffic Road Congestion Public transport in DSM city is generally poor and unsafe; lacking professionalism, efficiency, quality and safety for the passengers. The main factors leading to these situations include: rapid expansion of the city which has far outpaced the capacity to provide basic infrastructure (such as good roads) and services, poor state of majority 15

30 of the buses, untrained bus drivers and conductors driven by the pursuit of daily revenue targets payable to the bus owners, non-adherence to traffic rules and regulations; and lack of an organized public transport system (Kanyama et al.2004: Nkurunziza et al. 2012). Public transport service in DSM is dominated by small buses called daladala which are about 9,000, with capacities ranging from 16 to 35passengers. The service offered is poor due to overloading and overcrowded buses particularly during peak hours; reckless driving, route shortening, harassment of women and school children. The following are the underlined causes of road traffic congestion in DSM region Daladala as the Cause of Road Traffic Congestion The most frequent and wide spread causes of reduced road capacity are indiscriminate kerbside parking and stopping to load or unload passengers and goods as it is always done by daladala drivers. When drivers of daladala buses pick passengers on the way, they normally do not bother to park even on the kerbside but simply stop right in the middle of the road; the results of which makes other drivers stop too. The undesired behaviors of such drivers which can be termed as reckless driving cause a lot of unnecessary congestions and slow moving of vehicles even where it was not supposed to be slow Traffic Influencing Events External events have major effect on traffic flow. These include traffic incidents such as crashes and vehicles breakdown; work zones, bad weather such as heavy rainfall; special events like passing of government officials; and poorly timed traffic signals. When these events occur, their main impact is to steal physical capacity from the road way. Such events cause travelers to rethink their trips. The level of congestion on a roadway is determined by the interaction of physical capacity with the events that are taking place at a given time. 16

31 2.5.3 Population Increase and Vehicle Ownership Population increase is one of the causes of traffic congestion in the world. It is the process that leads to spatial concentration of households and economic activities within an interrelated network of markets in a limited area. Increases in population in urban areas are caused by push and pull factors (Kyessi, 2002). More than one-half of the world s population lives in the cities. The growth of population in urban globally averages 2 percent annually and the number of megacities-those with population in excess of 10 million people-has quadrupled in the past two decades (Davis, 2007). These trends are expected to continue being dominated by demographic shifts in the developing world. The United Nation predicts that more than 80 percent of population growth in the next ten years will occur in the developing countries urban areas (ibid). However, many people in towns and cities and specifically in DSM own vehicles. Number of vehicles increase disproportionally with the road capacity and this leads to traffic congestion. As population continues to increase and as the city continues to sprawl, more people live and work in the city and make more trips within the urban areas, often over long distances. Consequently, the limited capacity of the existing transport infrastructure is stretched to the limit. Thus, it has become a constraint to cope with the public demand for travel. The performance of public transportation in DSM in social, economic and environmental aspects is thus distressing (Kanyama et al, 2004) Insufficient Road Width Some roads are narrow compared to the volume of the traffic in the road. This problem affects DSM roads including roads extending to the periphery. An example is Uhuru road in DSM, which is narrow and has no parking bays; a situation which forces the vehicles to stop anywhere on the road for passengers to board and offload (Kanyama et al., 2004).This practice causes more traffic congestion and more chances for accidents. 17

32 2.5.5 Inadequate Parking Space and Wrong Parking in the City Centre Most cities particularly in developing countries do not have adequate parking areas; a situation which accounts for haphazardly parking along the roads. In DSM, the most serious problem related to parking can be vividly seen at the city centre. It is aggravated by the nature of the city where the major roads converge in the city centre, hence forcing all vehicles in the city streets. This is not only the problem of the city of DSM, but also other cities worldwide. The deficiency of parking spaces in Lagos in Nigeria, for instance, has contributed to the problem of traffic congestion especially in the city business centre (Oni, 2002).This occurs because whenever one tries to park somewhere they slow their vehicle causing those following him/her to slow down too; this increases traffic congestion. This behavior or situation is common in the city of DSM Poor Vehicle Maintenance When vehicles are poorly maintained, frequent breakdown or faults are usually experienced. Thus, when these breakdowns occur, vehicles tend to block the road hindering other vehicles to pass through. As a result, traffic jam increases at that particular moment causing queues of cars, delays among the travelers, and other services; a situation which could be avoided if the vehicles were well maintained. This situation is very common in the city of DSM particularly in the high ways especially Morogoro and Nelson Mandela roads. Poor vehicles maintenance, therefore, leads to traffic congestion. Accidents may occur due to unmaintained motor vehicles. Many experts including the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) believe that accidents are the single most important causes of traffic congestion (Down, 2004) Poor Planning Some poor planning rules force people into towns and cities and thus cities grow disproportionately with increase in road capacity. This applies to many cities including those of developing countries like DSM and even developed countries like the United Kingdom. The high frequency and concentration of people s functions and requirements in the city centre is a result of poor planning. The city s transport 18

33 sector is burdened with high travel demand soaring from uneven distribution of public and private facilities within the city (SSATP, 20 05).This denotes firstly, a concentration of employment and market opportunities in the city centre. According to Olvera et.al (2003), DSM urban facilities (the port, the main hospital, the largest market and the commercial district of Kariakoo) are all located in the centre of the city. This obliges the inhabitants to commute to access the opportunities there. And secondly, it denotes lack of services, as schools and health units within or close to residential areas makes communication unavoidable. Moreover, nearly all offices (ministries, government agencies and embassies) are located at the city centre. As a result, in the morning, people commute to such areas to work. In the evening, it is the opposite in the sense that the traffic congestion recovers as people are heading towards their residential areas outside the city Road Works Road works are common in every country and for the purpose of facilitating access to the intended destinations, diversions and alternative ways have to be established. If not well planned, it can cause traffic congestion. The challenge is how to deal with traffic congestion or prevent it during the construction period. It normally causes delays and general complaints by those who are using the roads. In some incidences, road workers aggravate the problem by blocking parts of the road for a long time even if the work is not taking place. In DSM, there is an increase of traffic congestion along new Bagamoyo road, due to the ongoing construction of that road from Mwenge to Tegeta as well as on Morogoro road where the construction project of the bus rapid transit (BRT) is taking place Drivers Misbehavior DSM is one of the cities which are highly characterized by reckless driving due to violation of traffic rules. Drivers have a tendency to disregard or violate the traffic regulations such as to overtake where it is prohibited, driving while drunk, neglecting road signs and markings, discharging passengers on the road instead of the bus to stop and the use of the U-turn where is prohibited. Drivers may lack confidence or ability due to poor training as well as lack of competencies. Thus, misbehavior of 19

34 some drivers on failure to adhere to traffic regulations is among the main contributing factors to the increase of traffic jam (Sempoli, 2006). There have been penalties (fines) for every fault made in order to discourage these misbehaviors, but it has not proved very successful. The daladala drivers malpractices in DSM increase the problem of traffic congestion and accidents. However, unethical practices by drivers are common to many countries including Indian cities. When drivers are caught by police, the unethical police may release them through acceptance of bribes. The situation is also experienced in Nairobi Kenya where the commuter minibuses commonly known as matatu like the daladala in DSM violate traffic regulations and therefore cause traffic congestion and accidents Poor Traffic Management The poor traffic management is a result of malfunctioning of traffic lights, absence of road signs, inadequate enforcement of laws, low penalties given to punish violators of traffic congestions, employment of few law enforcers for instance traffic police and lack of facilities to tow disable vehicles on the road as in the case of India. This is also a problem in other developing countries like Tanzania whose economy is weak. As a result, they cannot afford to control traffic using modern technology which is rather expensive in terms of resources Disproportional Growth between Economy and Infrastructure Propensity in industry is the basis of an improved standard of livings but it depends on efficient means of communication and transport and cannot be brought about whilst there are inadequate transportation system and expensive delays in traffic jams. This situation makes the practice of violation of traffic rules, using private motorcycles and bajaj for travelling to and from work; a very expensive, delicate and dangerous affair in terms of time, safety and economy. This is due to unnecessary delays especially during peak hours in evening the morning. Urban sprawl affects many cities in the world such as Beijing in China. Zhang (2004) observed that the high cost of living in the cities forces city dwellers to shift to the suburbs. House rent in Beijing is quite high, especially near the heart of the city where house values 20

35 go as high as 10,000 Yuan (US$1,209.6) per square metre. In response, residents who have to move to the suburbs also buy cars as their means of transport implying that the number of cars is increased while the development of roads has not matched the rapid increase of the cars. As a result, there is a continuous increase in traffic congestion. This situation extends the problem from the city center to suburbs. For example; in China Beijing, there is just over 22 million people, imagine that if each person drove a car, how safe or busy would these roads be. In the UK (Londo n), many people live in the countryside while always get access to the city centre. Most of such people own cars, which lead them to face the same problem of traffic congestion. Actually, the same situation is now facing the city of DSM, where there is an increasing urbanization and most of people are establishing residents in the suburbs at the same time working in the city centers. Most of these people who are formal and informal employees own cars. The big number of vehicles with inadequate roads is cited as the main cause of traffic congestion in the suburbs of most cities in developing countries and in particullar DSM. 2.6 Conceptual Framework and Research Model A conceptual framework can be defined as a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation (Reichel and Raey, 1987). It is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to communicate. It forms part of the agenda for negotiation to be scrutinized and tested, reviewed and reformed as a result of investigation (Guba and Lincolin, 1989). The critical and comprehensive reading made and analysis of various literature works shows that there is direct relationship between traffic road congestion and various social-economic activities. The independent variable road traffic congestion (reckless driving, urbanization, population growth, per capital income, few to mention) affect the dependent variable employees /people s well being in various ways (tiredness, stress, delays, wastage of time, early work up, lack of enough time to rest) which in turn affects social economic undertakings. A slight change in independent variable leads to the same change in dependent variable. Thus the dependent variableemployees /peoples social-economic activities are influenced by the independent 21

36 variable road traffic congestion. This affirmation made above on the relationship between the two variables can be more understood by taking consideration of the diagram below: Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework (Source: Researcher, 2013) Impacts on employees /people Wellbeing Road traffic congestion (Factors) -reckless driving -urbanization CHAPTER THREE -Population growth -Per capital income - Tiredness - Stress - Delays - Queering - Early workup - Wasting of time in queuing - No enough time to rest - Lateness - rat running - inability to forecast travel time accurately - Just in case time -increase in number cars -centralization most main offices at the city centre -insufficient number CHAPTER of roads THREE -employment -economic development Affects Social-Economic Activities -Absenteeism -increase in poverty -poor performance in academics -insecurity -Termination and demotions -increase on early pregnancy for students -Increase in death rates -Increase in PWDs -increase in expenditures -HIV/AIDS pandemic -decrease in sales -decline in productivity Increase in accidents - Below working standard 22

37 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction Defined by Kothari, (2004), research refers to the structured enquiry which utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally acceptable. Research methodology has been defined as a systematic way to solve research problem. Methodology consists of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of the study findings. This section discusses the methodology of the study, population of the study, sampling procedures and sample size, data collection methods and data analysis methods. 3.1 Research Design Research design refers to the plan for undertaking the study especially obtaining a sample from a given population including techniques or the procedure that would be adopted (Patton, 1990). According to Panneerselvam (2007: 12), the research design provides complete guidelines for data collection. Selection of research approach, design of sampling plan, experiment and questionnaire are among the essence of research design. A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study used as a guide in collecting and analyzing data. It is the blueprint that is followed in completing the study (Churchill & Brown 2007). According to Adam and Kamuzora (2008), research design can be understood as a detailed work plan which is used to guide a research study to achieve specified objectives of the research. Basing on the objectives of the study, descriptive research was used since the study was expecting to portray an accurate description and a better understanding of the social economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region. A descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in anyway (Shuttleworth2008). 23

38 The study design used both quantitative and qualitative approaches to collect the necessary data. Qualitative approach was used to give more description on what was obtained from intensive interviews which was quantitatively done by presenting it in tables and frequencies. An intensive interview was undertaken in order to collect data from selected groups of residence in DSM. The information gathered was complemented by a review of relevant documents and a review of results from empirical studies undertaken elsewhere to establish a well documented social-economic impact of traffic congestion in DSM region. 3.2 Population of the Study/Unit of Inquiry Population is the large general group of many cases from which a researcher draws a sample for a study (Neumann and Robson, 2009; Enon, 1998). Population is the group of potential participants, objects, or events to whom or to which researchers want to generalize the results of the study derived from a sample drawn from the population (Martella, 1999). According to Mugenda (1999), the target population means the population to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. The population was composed of employees from formal and informal sectors and students. Krishnan, (2003) defined population as the target group to be studied in pa rticular place. It is the aggregate of all units pertaining to the study. The technique which was employed is sampling. A sample was used because of the costs in terms of funds, time and materials that could be involved in surveying the whole population. The total survey population target was employees of two public sectors and two private sectors. From each organization selected, twenty employees were included in the study. The employees were divided as follows: two employees from managerial level, thirteen from middle level management and operational or lower management. This means 60 employees were representing public and private sector. As far as the learning institution is concerned, three primary and three secondary schools, and one 24

39 higher learning institution offered a total of 140 informants; 20 students from each school and the same number from the higher learning institution. With regards to the informal sector; twenty drivers from public transport-daladala, taxes, bajaji and motorcycles were selected. This means there were 60 employees from this sector. The study also included interviews from the public vendors particularly at Kariakoo market. It means that, an interview was conducted with some people of the general public, concerning their views on the impact of road traffic congestion in their daily activities. In this area, 20 people were selected and interviewed. The method which was applied was purposive sampling. Therefore, the total sample of the study was 300 people ( see table 3.1). All these were chosen randomly and purposively. The probability sampling was used to reduce the risk of bias and give the population equal probabilities of being chosen. Table 3.1 Population of the Study Sector Name of the organization Management Other staffs Total Formal Tanzania Public Service employment College The National Institute of Transportation Research on Poverty Alleviation Ifakara Health Institute Informal Minibus/Daladala 20 Employment Taxi 20 Bajaji 20 Motorcycle 20 Primary schools Diamond 20 UhuruMchanganyiko 20 Bunge 20 Secondary schools Jitegemee JKT 20 25

40 Sector Name of the organization Management Other staffs Total Loyola 20 St. Anthony 20 High Institutions learning Tanzania Public Service College 20 Public audience Kariakoo market 20 GRAND TOTAL 300 Source: Researcher s Construct, Sampling Procedures and the Sample Size Sampling is the process of drawing a sample from the large population. Kothari (2009) defined a sample design as a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. A sample is the part of the population. Sampling frame is the list of the sampling units. There is more than one sampling methodology. The research employed cluster sampling method which deliberately includes people of similar characteristics in a specific location (Miles and Huberman 1994). This technique was used in order to obtain a representative sample drawn from a heterogeneous population. The population was grouped into a more homogeneous group so as to provide the best chance for generalization and allow the researcher to increase precision. Homogeneous groups include people of similar character such as professional background or any other character which makes them distinct from the other. It entails all the constituents of the same nature; consisting of similar parts, or of elements of the same nature. 26

41 Since it was established that the technique which was employed in this research is sampling technique, it follows that the sampling frame was the residents living and working in DSM. For that case, few organizations were selected in which their employees were taken as a sample for the study. The same sampling technique was used in the informal sectors whereby different drivers and conductors of daladala, tax, bajaji and even bodaboda were selected for the study. This is how the sampling technique was employed in this study/research. This is indicated in the tables below: Table 3.2: Category of Respondents and Sampling Methods Respondents Category Sampling Method Data Collection Method Employees in Public Purposive sampling Questionnaires Sectors Employees in Private Purposive Sampling Questionnaires Sectors Conductor & Drivers of Simple random sampling Interviews and Daladala Questionnaires Taxes Simple random sampling Interviews and Questionnaires Bajaji Simple random sampling Interviews Motorcycles Simple random sampling Interviews. People from the general Purposive Sampling Interviews Public Primary Schools Purposive Sampling Interviews High Learning Institution Purposive Sampling Questionnaire Secondary Schools Purposive Sampling Questionnaire Source: Researcher s Construct, Reasons for Sampling Techniques/Methods Employed Purposive or Judgment Sampling In purposive sampling, decision with regard to which item should be included or excluded in the sample, rests on the researcher s judgment and situation (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). In this method and elements which he believes will be able to deliver the required data (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). This method was employed because it involves selection of employees that were judged as appropriate for the 27

42 given study. And in this case, employees from private and public sectors in DSM who were selected were relevant to this study. This method is appropriate when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance of the sampling units to the study and not their overall representatives to the population (the whole employees in DSM region) Simple Random Sampling Simple random sampling is a probability sampling whereby all members in the population have equal chance of being selected to form a sample (Adam &Kamuzora, 2008). The use of this method gave each employee an equal and independent chance of being selected. This technique is appropriate where the sampling frame is not too large and each unit is easily accessible (White, 2002) as the case for the drivers and conductors of buses from Mwenge Posta route. It is also good when the population is made up of members of similar characteristics, as the size of random sample depends on the homogeneity (Shaughnessy et al, 2000). It is easier to apply and require no prior knowledge or true composition of the population. It is also easy to compute the amount of sampling error associated to it. Under simple random sampling, bias is generally eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated (Kothari, 2009) Stratified Random Sampling; If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample (Kothari, 2007). Stratified random sampling is a sampling technique whereby the total population is divided into different groups or lagers before selection of the representatives (Adam &Kamuzora, 2008). Each group or layer is commonly known as strata. This is to ensure representation of all members of the population. Those elements having similar characteristics are grouped into the same stratum. This is more important when the population from which a sample is drawn has different characteristics. It results in more reliable and detailed information. It increases a sample s efficiency and providing data for analyzing the various sub-populations. In the sampling technique of this study, the employees were 28

43 divided into two main groups namely; formal and informal employees. As regards to informal employees, drivers in DSM were one of the sampling frames from which a sample was taken. Since these drivers are many and differ in various degrees as for drivers for private cars, drivers for public transport (drivers of daladala, motorcycles, taxis and bajaji), they were grouped into at least four levels (drivers strata). The first strata were drivers of daladala; secondly; drivers of taxes, thirdly; drivers of motorcycles and fourthly; drivers of taxis. From these four strata, the simple random sampling was employed to carry out the study. 3.5 Data Collection Methods These are ways used to gather information from various sources. Combined methods of data collection such as in-depth interview, questionnaire, and electronic mail were used taking into consideration factors like cost and time of the researcher in one hand and the time of the respondents on the other. It is clear and evident that in most cases, in research we consider two types of data namely; primary data and secondary data. The following are the clarifications of the types of data Primary Data This is the type of data which are collected in the field of study for answering research questions. They are collected by research assistants from the field for the purpose of answering a research question/issue (Adam & Kamuzora, 2008). The primary data are collected through observation, direct communication with respondents or through personal interviews. They can also be gathered through, among others, interviews or questionnaires (Kothari 2009). However observation, questionnaire and interview are common research tools used to collect primary data. In this study, the primary data were collected through questionnaire and interview Secondary Data Secondary data means data are already available. They refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else (Kothari, 2009 ). They are obtained from literature sources or data collected by other people for some other purposes (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). They may be either published or 29

44 unpublished. Thus, secondary data provide second hand information and include both raw data and published ones (Sounders et al 2000). Secondary data sources include books, journal articles, news papers, report and publications of various associations and organization as well as other documentary reviews from internet. Thus, apart from the primary data, this study included also secondary as shown above. 3.6 Data Collection and Techniques Observation, questionnaire and interviews are common research tools used to collect data and in special way; the primary data. This study employed questionnaires and interviews Interviews This is face to face contact between interviewer and interviewee. It can take place at home (do to do interviewing), office (executive interviewing) or even at the shopping centers (mall intercept surveys) depending on the na ture of respondents (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). In this study, this method was employed to gather information on the respondents views on the topic under study. It used multiple ended questions which were asked accordingly. The interview was conducted to the drivers of daladala, taxis, motorcycles, people of the general public and students from the selected primary schools. During the study, interview was used in two fold dimensions; structured and semistructured. In unstructured interviews; the questions, wording, and sequence are fixed and identical for every respondent (Sounders et al, 2000). The structure d interview consisted of planned questions in advance in which the respondents were required to answer them accordingly. This type of interview is highly standardized and follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed (Kothari, 2004). On the other hand, unstructured or semi structured interview does not have predetermined questions and it is not standardized. The semi-structured interview contained planned questions in advanced which were to be answered, but it provide opportunity to the respondents to explore more on areas in which the questions were 30

45 basing. This technique is used when one intends to explore a problem under investigation. What was needed is just to have a clear idea about what was intended to be explored and then the themes to be exhausted or put down. It is flexible in nature and the interviewer has much freedom on how the questions are to be asked (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). In this study, the interview schedule consisted of a list of questions which were filled by the interviewer. The questions explored the opinions of various cadres such as drivers, conductors and other normal citizens. Therefore, these tools were applied and helped the researcher to get various information/views concerning the socialeconomic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region Questionnaire There are various definitions of the term questionnaire and different authors on research (researchers) have defined it differently. White (2002) defined questionnaire as a series of questions, each providing a number of alternative answers from which the respondent can choose. Hence questionnaire can be considered in general terms in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order. Structured and telephone questionnaires and those in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions as well as those in which the questions are answered without the researcher being around are inclusive (Adam and Kamuzora, 2008). In this study, the questionnaires were designed in a single way basing on research questions. Through this tool, the respondents within the areas of the study were in position to answer the questions concerning the study. During the study, the questionnaires were administered by the researcher and the respondents were required to fill them under his guidance. The questionnaires were of two main types: closed and open ended ones. The rationale behind using closed ended questions was to get answers or responses that were direct, brief and straight to the point. Above all, this method was said to be efficiency in the field of research in the sense that it is not expensive, it is free from bias of the interviewer and the respondents were in a 31

46 position to provide answers accurately and clearly. The aim of using open ended questions was to enable the respondents give out their views without limitations. In this case, the researcher was in a good position to select the appropriate and relevant answers concerning the study at hand. 3.7 Data Analysis Plan Data analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationships that exist among data groups (Kothari, 2009). It implies examining what has been collected in a survey or experiments and making deductions and inferences (Kombo and Tromp, 2011). It involves uncovering underlying structures, extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying assumptions. The process of data analysis aims at determining whether the observations support the research questions that were formulated before going into the field to collect the information. With regards to this study, the data collected were edited for accuracy and completeness before they were subjected to analysis. Descriptive analysis method was adopted. This type of analysis, analyzed the responses through diagrams, tabulations, frequencies and percentages by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). In analyzing the data, answers from different respondents and information obtained from documents were thoroughly checked out and compared to establish their validity. The purpose was to add value to the study findings. Analysis of data was basically based on the research objectives and questions. 32

47 CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the nature of data which were collected in the field. The data concerning the social-economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region were collected through various methods namely: questionnaire, open and closedended interview. The data were collected in various proposed organizations. However, before presentation, analysis and discussion of the empirical findings, the characteristics of respondents are presented and analyzed since are among the ways which establish validity and reliability of data collected. 4.1 Descriptive Statistics/Characteristics of the Respondents Structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted to ten government stakeholders who are responsible for roads and transportation in DSM. These were Ministry of Works, Ministry of Transport, TANROADS headquarters in DSM region, TRL, DART, SUMATRA, DSM city council, and DSM Municipalities namely Kinondoni, Ilala and Temeke. Others were Traffic Police DSM headquarters, Traffic DSM Police regions namely; Kinondoni, Ilala and Temeke. Unstructured Interview was also conducted to drivers of daladala, taxi, bajaji and motorcycle. Questionnaire for data collection was distributed to four organizations. These were NIT, REPOA, Ifakara Health Institute and TPSC. Secondary Schools covered were St. Anthony High School, Jitegemee JKT High School and Loyola High School. Primary Schools were Diamond, Bunge and Uhuru Mchanganyiko. The questionnaire was also distributed to 20 shop owners at Kariakoo market Sex Generally, the study was expecting to cover about 300 respondents. Unfortunately, only 220 respondents participated through questionnaires and interviews. About 42(55.5%) were females and 98 (44.5%) were male s. The observed variation in gender very small. General observation indicates the equality especially in gender basis. 33

48 Table 4.1 Respondents Sex Gender Frequency Percent Male Female Total Source: Researcher, Educational Level Research findings indicated that 25(11.4%) of respondents who participated in the study using questionnaire and the interview had primary education, 84(38.2) had secondary education, 32(14.5%) had certificate and diploma education, 52(23.6%) had undergraduate degrees and 27(12.3%) had masters plus; of 3 had PhD educational level.this implies that, the respondents to the research constitute good academic qualifications which played a significant role on the research findings. Figure 4.1 Respondents Level of Education 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Primary Education Secondary Education Diploma Advanced Diploma Masters Plus Source: Researcher, Type of Employment The research findings indicated that, out of 220 respondents who participated in the study, 52(24.1%) were employed in various public and private organizations, 47(21.7%) were self employed while 117(54.2%) were unemployed. 34

49 Figure 4.2 Respondents Employment level 24.10% 54.20% 21.70% Source: Researcher, Employment Position As far as employment level in the respondents respective organizations is concerned; findings from the scoped areas of the study indicate the following information: About 34(40.5) respondents were in managerial level, 20(23.8) were in middle level and 30(35.7) were at the level of operations (operational level). 35

50 Figure 4.3 Respondents Employment Position Operational Level Middle Level Management Level Source: Researcher, % 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 4.2 Assessment of the Research Objectives This study was aimed at assessing the social-economic impact of road traffic congestion in DSM region. Therefore, this part is shows the respondents views in relation to the research objectives Relationship between Road Traffic Congestion and the Social-Economic Activities The research findings show that, there is a direct relationship between the road traffic congestion and the carrying of various daily activities. This objective was assessed through various indicators as presented below: Delays The research findings depicted that, delays due to traffic road congestion results in late arrival to any place where a person is going or needed. About 134 (60.9%) of the whole respondents strongly agreed, 78(35.5%) agreed and 8(3.6%) were neutral, that is they neither agreed nor disagreed with the proposition above. 36

51 Figure 4.4 Delays 3.60% 35.50% 60.90% Source: Researcher, Lateness Data from the field show that lateness to work reduce hours of performance of an individual and organizations. About 116(52.7) of the respondents, responded strongly agreed with the affirmation above, while 80(36.4) agreed, 14(3.6) were neutral, 8(0.9) disagreed and 2(0.9) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.5 Lateness Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Source: Researcher, Wastage of time Research findings demonstrated that many working hours are lost daily on the way during traffic jams. Out of 220 respondents, 124(56.4%) strongly agreed, 82(37.3%) agreed, 14(6.4) neither agreed nor disagreed. 37

52 Figure 4.6. Working Hours are lost Daily on the Way 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Source: Researcher, Emergence Vehicles The research conducted showed that blocked traffic jam due to interference with emergence vehicles travelling to various destinations was highly experienced. This situation impedes travelers to reach their destinations on time. About 104(48%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 86(39) agreed, 20(9%) were neutral, 6(3%) disagreed and 2(1%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.7 Blocked Traffic Jams with Passage of Emergency Vehicles Travelling to their Destinations 60% 40% 20% 0% Source: Researcher, 2013 Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 38

53 Social-Economic Activities Concerning the impact of road traffic congestion on the daily undertaking of social economic activities, the research showed that about 79(36%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 69(31%) agreed, 56(25%) were neutral, 14(6%) disagreed and 2 (1%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.8. Road Traffic Congestion has Serious Problems in mining of the Socio Economical Activities. 6% 25% 36% 31% Source: Researcher, Loss from the Road Traffic Congestion Research showed that there is a huge loss that results from road traffic congestion in DSM region. The respondents agreed to large extent on various losses which were seen under various dimension as follows: Fuel Consumption About 112(50.9) of all respondents strongly agreed on the high level of fuel consumption by cars during the congestion.70 (31.8%) respondents agreed on the same grounds of fuel consumption, 30(13.6) disagreed and 30(13.6) were neutral. 39

54 Figure 4.9 Road Traffic Congestions and Fuel Consumption Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Source: Researcher, Decrease in Productivity/Low Economic Growth Research showed that road traffic congestion has contributed to the fall in production. Out of 220 respondents 56(25) strongly agreed, 94(43) agreed, 44(20) neither agreed nor disagreed, while 6(3) strongly disagreed. 40

55 Figure 4.10 Road Traffic Congestion Drags the Productivity and Growth of the Regional Economy 9% 3% 25% 20% 43% Source: Researcher, Increase in Accidents Concerning the increase of accidents in DSM due to traffic jam, the research showed that; 73(33%) strongly agreed, 65(30) agreed, 60(27) were neutral, 12(5) disagreed, while 10(5%) strongly disagreed. 41

56 Figure 4.11 Accidents 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strong Source: Researcher, The Use of Motorcycles as Alternative Means of Transport has increased the Rate of Accidents The views of the respondents on the increase of accidents due to the use of motorcycles were as follows. 111(54%) respondents strongly agreed, 62(28%) agreed, 22(10%) were neutral, 8(4%0 disagreed and 8(4%) strongly disagreed. 42

57 Figure 4.12 The Use of Motorcycles and its Relation to Accidents 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strong Disag Source: Researcher, Inability to Estimate Travel Times Leading to Drivers Allocating more Time to Travel "just in case", and Less Time on Productive Activities The empirical literature done showed that most of the residents in DSM fail to estimate the travelling time due to the prevailing traffic jam. Respondents from the field had the following responses: 80(36%) strongly agreed, 88(40%) agreed, 38(17%) neither agreed nor disagreed and 4(2%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.13 Inability to Estimate Travel Time 5%2% 17% 36% 40% Source: Researcher,

58 4.3.6 Due to early Wake up and late Coming to Home Place; Many Workers are Victims of Risks Regarding this proposition, it was seen that; about 103(47%) strongly agreed, 80(36%) agreed, 31(14%) neither agreed nor disagreed, 4(2%) disagreed and 2(1%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.14 Early Wake up and the Associated Risks 36% 14% 2%1% 47% Source: Researcher, Physical/mental complications and Effect on work performance Tiredness and Stress reduce Pork Performance As far as the tiredness and stress as a result of road traffic congestion and the extent to which they affect work performance; 101(45%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 109(49%) agreed, 4(2%) were neutral and 6(3%0 disagreed. Figure 4.15 Health related Complications 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Source: Researcher,

59 Vehicles Emissions during Congestion Pollute Air and Consequently Affect People s Health Regarding this proposition, 101(46%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 82(37%) agreed, 31(14%) neither agreed nor disagreed, 4(2%) disagreed and 2(1%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.16 Health related Complications 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Strongly Agree Source: Researcher, 2013 Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree Long Commutes alone Have Health Impacts such as fatigue, digestion difficulties, and pains and increased heart rate 57(26%) of the respondents who commented on the statement strongly agreed, 93(42%) agreed, 58(26%) were neutral, 10(5%) disagreed and 2(1%) strongly disagreed. 45

60 Figure 4.17 Health Impacts (fatigue, digestion difficulties) 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Stron Source: Researcher, Supporting Policies to Reduce Road Traffic Congestion The Introduction of Commuter train in DSM The respondents were asked to give their stance on the proposition that the introduction of the commuter trains in DSM has reduced the road traffic congestion. 48(22%) strongly agreed, 62(28%) agreed, 54(25%) neither agreed nor disagreed, 36(16%) disagreed and (20%) strongly disagreed. Table 4.18 The Introduction of Commuter train in DSM Strongly Disagree, 9% Strongly Agree, 22% Disagree, 16% Neutral, 25% Agree, 28% Source: Researcher,

61 4.5.2 Commuter train has Improved Social-economic Activities The residents of DSM have diverse perceptions with regard to the extent to which the commuter trains have improved the social economic activities since its implementation. 32(14.5%) strongly agreed, 90 (40.9%) agreed, 48 (21.8%) neither agreed nor disagreed, 38 (17.3%), while 12(5.5%) strongly disagreed. Figure: 4.19 Commuter train and Social-economic Activities Disagree, 17.30% Strongly Disagree, 5.50% Strongly Agree, 14.50% Neutral, 21.80% Agree, 40.90% Source: Researcher, The BRT Project in DSM It has been planned that the BRT projects once completed will alleviate the problem of traffic congestion in DSM. During the research; 50(22.7%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 80(36.4%) agreed, 72(32.7%) were neutral, 12(5.5%) disagreed and 6(2.7%) strongly disagreed. 47

62 Figure 4.20 BRT Project in DSM 40% 20% 0% Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Di Source: Researcher, The BRT project and Social-Economic Activities in DSM Concerning how the BRT project will lead to efficient social-economic activities, it showed that 46(21.0%) of the respondents strongly agreed, and 101(46.1%) agreed, 60(27.4%) were neutral, 8(3.7%) disagreed, 4(1.8%) strongly disagreed. Figure 4.21 BRT Project and Social-Economic Activities Strongly Disagree Disagree 1.80% 3.70% Neutral 27.40% Agree Strongly Agree 21% Source: Researcher, % 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 4.5 Conclusion This chapter has given a clear picture on the nature of the respondents who participated in the study. Briefly it has shown the relationship that exists between the research variables. From the explanations and figures in the chapter, it is evident that 48