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Transcription

1 PIDSIOlDGY OfHSHm INIINSM ajlili sm1s

2 JOIN US ON THE INTERNET WWW: thomson. com is the on-line portal for the products, services and resources available from International Thomson Publishing (ITP). This Internet kiosk gives users immediate access to more than 34 ITP publishers and over 20,000 products. Through thomson. com Internet users can search catalogs, examine subject-specific resource centers and subscribe to electronic discussion lists. You can purchase ITP products from your local bookseller, or directly through thomson. com. Visit Chapman & Hall's Internet Resource Center for infonnation on our new publications, links to useful sites on the World Wide Web and the opportunity to join our mailing list. Point your browser to: Life Sciences A service of loop

3 PHYSIOlDGY OfHSHm INllNSM GJLTURI smts G \RY A. \VEI>E\ln ER Northwest Biological Science Center National Biological Service U.S. Department of the Interior SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

4 Cover design: Henry Alvarez; Alvarez Design Illustration by: Stewart Alcom Copyright 1996 by Springer Science+Busmess Media Dordrecht OriginaIly published by Chapman & Hall in 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996 AII rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, record ing, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher XXX Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wedemeyer, Gary A. Physiology of fish in intensive eul ture systems I Gary A. Wedemeyer. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Fish-culture. 2. Fishes--Physiology. 1. Title. SH151W dc CIP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available

5 This book is dedicated to Dr. A. M. Dollar who taught me how to do research, Dr. Robert R. Rucker who hired me and still inspires my work, and to the memory of Dr. S. F. Snieszko.

6 Contents Preface Acknowledgments List of Scientific Names Xl Xlll XV Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Introduction Historical Perspective Normal Conditions in the Aquatic Environment The Intensive Culture Environment Basic Physiological Functions Introduction Respiration and Oxygen Consumption Blood and Circulation Osmoregulation Parr-Smolt Transformation Feeding, Digestion, Excretion Feeding Digestion Excretion Immune Protection Stress Response Interactions with Water Quality Conditions Introduction vii

7 viii Contents Water Quality Requirements Acidity Alkalinity Ammonia Carbon Dioxide Chlorine Dissolved Oxygen Hardness Heavy Metals Hydrogen Sulfide Nitrate, Nitrite Supersaturation Temperature Limits Tolerance to Temperature Changes Effects on Growth Effects on Smolt Development Effects on Disease Resistance Total Dissolved Solids, Salinity Total Suspended Solids, Turbidity Summary Associated Fish Health Problems Gas Bubble Disease (Gas Bubble Trauma) Methemoglobinemia (Brown Blood Disease) Visceral Granuloma and Nephrocalcinosis Blue Sac Disease (Hydrocele embronalis) White-Spot (Coagulated-Yolk) Disease Soft-Shell Disease (Soft-Egg Disease) Algal Toxins Chapter 4 Effects of Fish Cultural Procedures Introduction 111 III Crowding III T ransportati on 121 Physiological Criteria for Life-Support Systems 122 Water Circulation 122 The Aeration System 123 Ammonia toxicity 125 Carbon dioxide toxicity 126 Techniques to Mitigate Stress and Improve Survival 128 Handling and Crowding 128 Anesthetics and Other Drugs 130 Fasting 131

8 Contents ix Water Temperature 132 Light Intensity 133 Mineral Salt Additions 133 Polymer Formulations 134 Transport in Aircraft, Ships and Barges 136 Shipments in Sealed Containers 137 Gametes, Fertilized Eggs 137 Alevins, Juvenile Fish 138 Formulated Diets 139 Adventitious Toxins 141 Rancidity. 145 Mold Toxins 146 Contaminants 146 Effects on Smolt Development 148 Time, Age, and Size at Release 153 Physiological Assessment of Smolt Development 155 Physiological Problems after Release 156 Scale Loss 157 Activation of Latent Infections 158 Salinity Intolerance Due to Gill Infections 158 Chapter 5 Biological Interactions Introduction Interactions Between Fish 166 Interactions Between Fish and Microorganisms 170 Fish-Pathogen-Environment Relationship 173 Infection into Disease: Mechanisms 176 Stress-Mediated Diseases 181 Diseases as Indicators of Environmental Quality 186 Managing Biological Interactions to Prevent Diseases 191 Problem Analysis 191 Pathogen Exposure 195 Chapter 6 Index Managing Pathogen Exposure Introduction Biological Methods Water Treatment Systems Chlorination Ultraviolet Light UV Treatment Systems Ozone

9 Preface Hatchery propagation for the conservation of declining fishery resources is becoming more and more intensive worldwide. Although intensive fish culture has many advantages over extensive rearing, much more careful management of the aquatic environment is required to prevent the adverse effects on health and physiological condition that would otherwise quickly occur. A more detailed understanding of fish physiology is also needed together with an improved understanding of how physiological systems interact with chemical, physical, and biological factors in the rearing environment. The effects of intensive culture on physiological condition are particularly important in hatcheries operated for the conservation of Pacific and Atlantic salmon which, in many cases, are now listed as threatened or endangered. My main objective in writing this book was to provide practicing professionals in fishery biology, aquaculture, and natural resource management with the basic technical information needed for the rational management of environmental conditions to improve the health and physiological condition of intensively propagated juveniles. In each chapter, I have attempted to blend theory with practical applications to provide the reader with the scientific basis for managing water quality, fish cultural procedures, and biological interactions with other fish and with microorganisms to prevent the health and disease problems that can lead to costly production loses. I hope the book will also be a useful source of technical information for undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in fishery biology, zoology, and marine biology courses. The general organization of the text is based on my previous book Environmental Stress and Fish Diseases, published in 1976 and coauthored with F. Meyer xi

10 xii Preface and L. Smith (retired). The material in the present book is based on lectures given over the succeeding two decades to practicing fishery biologists attending intensive short courses conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Technical Training, and to graduate students in fish pathology at the University of Washington.

11 Acknowledgments First and foremost, I thank the many practicing biologists and graduate students who were subjected to my lectures on this material in the government and university fish culture and fish pathology courses I helped teach over the past two decades. Their reactions and suggestions for improvements were invaluable in helping me shape the text into its final form. Mr. Chris Horsch of the US. Fish and Wildlife Service Office of Technical Training gave me particularly valuable guidance in selecting and organizing the material to be included in this book. My colleagues at the Northwest Biological Science Center (NBSC), provided many helpful comments on this work while it was in preparation - special thanks are due Dr. Gayle Brown in this regard. Outside reviewers included Dr. Robert Reinert, University of Georgia; Dr. Marsha Landolt, University of Washington; Mr. John Morrison, US. Fish and Wildlife Service; Ms. Kathy Hopper, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife; and Mr. Robert G. Piper and Charlie E. Smith - former Directors of the US. Fish and Wildlife Service Hatchery Technology Development Center, Bozeman, Montana, and my long-time mentors in intensive coldwater fish culture. Mr. Harry Westers, Michigan Department of Natural Resources (ret.) kindly gave permission to share his perspectives on the historical development of intensive culture systems. Finally, I thank Drs. Alfred C. Fox and Allan Marmelstein (NBSC) for their support, encouragement, and intellectual leadership while this book was in preparation. Our many discussions of basic biology over the years gave me valuable insights into the role of hatchery propagation in the conservation of the world's fishery resources. I. Formerly the National Fishery Research Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service. xiii

12 List of Scientific Names Throughout this book, fishes discussed are cited only by common name. The scientific names, taken from the American Fisheries Society Common and Scientific Names offish Speciesfrom the United States and Canada. 5th edition (1990) are as follows: American shad Atlantic salmon Brook trout Brown trout Channel catfish Chinook salmon Chum salmon Coho salmon Carp Cutthroat trout Cod Goldfish Grass carp Herring Lake trout Largemouth bass Menhaden Milkfish Northern pike Pacific salmon Alosa sapidissima Salmo salar Savelinus fontinalis Salmo trutta letalurus punctatus Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Oncorhynchus keta Oncorhynchus kisutch Cyprinus carpio Oncorhynchus clarki Gadus macrocephalus Carassius auratus Ctenopharyngodon idella Clupea harengus harengus Salvelinus namaycush Micropterus salmon ides Brevoortia tyrannus Chanos chanos Esox lucius Oncorhynchus spp. xv

13 xvi List a/scientific Names Pink salmon Rainbow trout Sea bream Sea bass Sockeye salmon Steel head trout Striped bass Striped marlin Striped mullet Threadfin shad Tilapia Walleye White catfish Yellowtail Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Oncorhynchus mykiss Sparus aurata Dicentrarchus labrax Oncorhynchus nerka Oncorhynchus mykiss Morone saxatilis Makaira audax MugU cepharius Dorosoma petenense Tilapia spp. Stizostedion vitreum lctalurus catus Seriola spp.

14 PIDSIOIOGY OFHSHm INIINSIV[ ajllll