SOLDIERS AND STRATEGIES Warfare in the Medieval World Military History/Mr.Smith

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SOLDIERS AND STRATEGIES Warfare in the Medieval World Military History/Mr.Smith CONTENTS I. Feudalism II. The Way of the Knight III. Medieval Weapons IV. Medieval Armor V. Siege Warfare VI.

1 SOLDIERS AND STRATEGIES Warfare in the Medieval World Military History/Mr.Smith CONTENTS I. Feudalism II. The Way of the Knight III. Medieval Weapons IV. Medieval Armor V. Siege Warfare VI. The End of the Knight Introduction The images of a knight clad in armor, brandishing gleaming sword atop a sturdy steed, is often the first image one thinks of when hearing the word Middle Ages or Medieval Times. The legend of the knight has inspired countless stories, myths and legends of chivalry. From King Arthur to the Song of Roland, the ideal of knightly virtues has inspired generations of readers. Though the reality of Medieval combat was certainly brutal and harsh, and grounded in a harsh social system, the legend of the knight has left its impact on society; virtue, honor, fair play and gallantry were universal ideals reinforced by chivalry, the knightly code of honor. Out of the disorder of the Dark Ages, and the insecurity of every village and town, arose warriors who promised the defense of all in their service: the knight. I. Feudalism The entire military order of Medieval times was based on the feudal system. In this system those with the most land held the most power, and those below them were their vassals. A lord could rely on knights to server him in war as the knights could rely on his castle in times of siege. The peasantry fought for landlord knights while the knights led them into battle in their heavily armored state. As one might expect, one at the top of the feudal order had the best military resources: the best armor and the best weapons. As one moved down the feudal order such accoutrements are lessened in quality until we reach the pitchfork or spear-armed, unarmored peasant. Because open field battles were rare, most engagements involved sieges; these were grand events in the Middle Ages for the era saw the pinnacle of defensive engineering. The feudal system was a political and social arrangement, but also a military system as well. Feudalism mandated who led, who followed, who sought protection and who protected. The social order created a very tangible chain of command, and separated the elite shock troops from the front line footmen. As long as the upper classes retained the better weaponry, the feudal order was intact; when this equation failed, the popular face of Europe would be forever altered. II. The Way of the Knight Warfare was a way of life during the Dark and Middle Ages. If one did not have the skills to fight and win, an untimely death was imminent. Out of the chaos of Rome s fall were born hundreds of warrior kingdoms and tribes, each fighting every adversary on its frontier. Boys were trained only to be fighting men; it was if humankind had reverted to the Stone Age hunter mode. However, out of that chaos was born a set of rules that was meant to bring order to the brutality of war: the Code of Chivalry. Chivalry was a fusion of Christian ideals and martial conventions. It called on knights to be honorable, charitable and merciful. Though every knight and soldier did not accede to this code, it shaped the mindset and culture of the era. With a society shaped in war it was little surprise that military training was a common activity. From a young age noble children began their practice. The first stage, as boys no older than 10, was to be attendant to a knight and a squire as a page. As the term page suggests, the lowest

echelon of recruit was an errand-runner and served pretty much as a custodian/butler. Upon entering his teens the page would be promoted to squire. The squire was truly a knight-in-training.

On the field of battle the squire would give his lord whatever weapons or new horses were required during a battle: somewhat like a pit stop in a modern auto race.

2 echelon of recruit was an errand-runner and served pretty much as a custodian/butler. Upon entering his teens the page would be promoted to squire. The squire was truly a knight-in-training. He practiced with weapons and armor, horseback riding and battle tactics. The squire s primary function was to be the right hand man of the knight. On the field of battle the squire would give his lord whatever weapons or new horses were required during a battle: somewhat like a pit stop in a modern auto race. Chivalry s rules forbade the actual fighting of a squire in battle: not even to save his lordknight s life. Of course, the pinnacle of soldier-hood was the knight. The knight was a warrior who served both his lord and his God. His duty was both to the feudal system and the Church. In fact, the ceremony in which he was certified knight was considered a religious event, much like holy sacraments in the Catholic Church of his day. Besides an official initiation through ceremony, men might sometimes be dubbed knights on the field of battle in desperate situations. Only lords and established knights could grant passage into their exclusive level of soldiering, and this was accomplished through the tapping of the soldier on his head, or sometimes on his soldiers, with the flat of the sword. Achieving knighthood, the newborn warrior carried his herald, his family s coat of arms, into battle. Heraldry was a colorful system of shapes, designs and scenes that adorned the tunics, shields and banners of knights. Passed down through their ancestors, the heraldic symbols were testament to the honor and lineage of a knight s family line. They were more that decoration, but necessary insignia to identify heavily armored soldiers on the battlefield. III. Medieval Weapons If Medieval Times were a trying and dangerous time in which to live, and indeed they were, it should be little surprise that the weapons wielded by its warriors were especially brutal. From the elegant but deadly sword to the smashing morning star, the weapons of the era were ferociously destructive, at the expense of many a limb and life. As far as melee, or close-range combat, there were three categories of weapons used: those for slashing, those for smashing and those for piercing. The most common handheld weapon of the individual soldier in the Middle Ages was the sword. Unlike the gladius of Roman times, the Medieval sword was long and designed as a slasher rather than to be poked at the enemy. Crafted by expert blacksmiths, steel swords were durable and could stand the test of time; they were often passed from father to son. The European sword was built for power and was sturdy and heavy. In a famous tale of King Richard the Lionheart s meeting with Saladin the Turkish leader, Richard proved the mightiness of his sword by slicing a heavy rock in two. Saladin, in response, let a silk scarf drift from the air and let it fall on the blade of his slight, curved scimitar(upon which it split). Such was the difference in the two cultures and the European emphasis on mass and raw power. As a secondary sword, the knight carried a mini-sword or dagger. The other major slashing weapon of the day was the axe. Being much simpler in construction and more speedily crafted that the sword, the axe was also widely-used, though rarely by nights. The axe was a favorite of the Saxons and the Franks. Swords and axes also came in two-handed variety, but in using such a weapon the warrior gave up an arm for the carrying of a shield. Besides slashing, another class of Medieval weapons was designed for crushing; these designs were innovations particular to the time. The most common smashing or bludgeoning weapon was a simple wooden club. Another such weapon was the mace. The mace was a short, straight metal club with spikes at the end. It was carried by monks in the Crusades, for the Bible forbade the use of slashing weapons(ones that

pierced the skin)..but not those that broke bones. It was a technicality that allowed clergymen to fight the infidel. The third type of smashing weapon was the flail.

Because of the image of the spike-laden balls on its chains, the flail was sometimes referred to as the morning star.

the defender s armored sheathing. The last class of melee weapons was piercing weapons. The most simple and ancient of these weapons was the spear.

When used on horseback by men such as the Norman knights, the spear became even more forceful.

3 pierced the skin)..but not those that broke bones. It was a technicality that allowed clergymen to fight the infidel. The third type of smashing weapon was the flail. The flail was a metal rod with several chains attached to the end of it; these ends usually contained steel balls that sported a dozen spikes. The weapon was whipped at the enemy with deadly effect. Because of the image of the spike-laden balls on its chains, the flail was sometimes referred to as the morning star. These blunt weapons gained popularity in the Late Middle Ages when solid plate armor was impervious to sword and axe strikes, but the bashing of maces and flails might cause internal injuries beneath the defender s armored sheathing. The last class of melee weapons was piercing weapons. The most simple and ancient of these weapons was the spear. Used more commonly in the Dark Ages, the spear of Medieval Times was meant for poking rather than throwing. When used on horseback by men such as the Norman knights, the spear became even more forceful. In the classical world the spear was wielded by cavalry over their shoulder with the arm in the air at a right angle. With the advent of the saddle and stirrup, knights tucked their spears underarm: this was referred to as the couched position. In this way, the horse did more than merely transport the spearmen to combat, its momentum contributed to the impact of his weapon. Spears became longer and heavier over time as wielded by horsemen until they became what we identify as the lance. The other major piercing weapon of the day was the halberd or bill. The halberd was a long wooden shaft with a two to three pronged metal blade atop it. It could be poked at the enemy like a spear or slashed at the enemy with its long, sharpened edge. Handheld projectile weapons were also especially dangerous. In the hands of a well-trained soldier, a bow or crossbow could give the tradesman an opportunity to destroy a powerful knight.. The Code of Chivalry forbade knights from the use of missile weapons, leaving only mercenaries and townspeople(the growing Middle Class) to carry and use the weapons. As the Medieval age set in, the only bows used were short bows, small slings made of single pieces of wood. The piercing power of these early bows was limited, and nearly useless against heavily armored knights. The development of the crossbow provided the footsoldier with a powerful weapon that could fire a bolt(short, un-feathered arrow) at a rate able to puncture the knight s defenses at close or medium range. The crossbow was fairly easy to learn to aim, and used most commonly in castle defense. However, its complexity in mechanics meant a protracted and tedious loading time. The final evolution of the bow was the famed longbow. When the English unleashed this weapon against the French, it decimated entire legions of knights at the Battles of Crécy, Poiters and Agincourt. Suddenly a cheaply-equipped carpenter, peddler or any number of tradesmen, equipped and trained in the use of the longbow, could bring down the once

crossbow could only hope to lfire off a round or two before contact with the enemy was made.

Medieval Armor The deadly weapons of the Middle Ages mandated a proper personal defense. As the development of new forms of attack progressed, so too did the nature of protective armor.

However, by the time of the Frankish Empire, scale mail was widely in use. Scale mail was an armor suit made of overlapping metal triangles in a layered fashion.

Knights wore chain mail from the 11 th century well into the 14th century. Chain mail was woven from interlocking rings of armor and provided a decent defense against handheld weapons and short bows.

4 great lords on horseback. Both the crossbow and longbow could penetrate plate mail armor(the crossbow at short distance only), but the rate of fire of the longbow allowed it to decimate mounted charges while the older crossbow could only hope to lfire off a round or two before contact with the enemy was made. In fact, as the enemy charged, Welch or English longbowmen let loose an arrow every five seconds, or twelve times per minute. IV. Medieval Armor The deadly weapons of the Middle Ages mandated a proper personal defense. As the development of new forms of attack progressed, so too did the nature of protective armor. At the outset of the Dark Ages, the Germanic tribes that brought down the Romans wore little more than shields, with no armored tunics. The next evolution was the use of leather padded armor. However, by the time of the Frankish Empire, scale mail was widely in use. Scale mail was an armor suit made of overlapping metal triangles in a layered fashion. Next in the evolution of body armor was chain mail. Chain mail had been used in Ancient times of course, it reemerged by the time of the Norman conquest. Knights wore chain mail from the 11 th century well into the 14th century. Chain mail was woven from interlocking rings of armor and provided a decent defense against handheld weapons and short bows. By the time of the Hundred Years War, plate mail began to be the choice defense of the average knight. Plate mail was solid steel armor crafted to fit the knight s body Though it was heavy, it was all but impervious to spear, sword and axe blows except where the armor hinged to allow for flexibility. Because of its weight, when knights were knocked down, it was all but impossible too stand, leaving many a warrior defenseless. Even horses were outfitted with plate armor towards the end of the Middle Ages. There were two main classifications of plate armor. Full plate referred to metal sheathing that covered the body from head to toe, while half plate (or partial plate ) involved a hybrid of chain mail armor enhanced with pieces of metal plate over body joints(knees and elbows), the shins and head. The common class of men-at-arms always carried the lower grade armor of the era. While knights wore plate mail in the 1400 s, the average foot soldier wore a suit of chain mail, just as when knights wore chain male during the Crusades, their attendants wore leather. The knight was incomplete without his shield. In the Dark Ages this was a round design of medium size as used by the Franks. The Normans used a long tear-shaped shield that provided Great Helm better protection and was well-designed to fit the knight on horseback. As the weight of armor and weaponry carried by knights improved, the Bascinet shield was downsized to a small, triangular shaped version. Helmets were also especially important to the knight. Dark Ages warriors such as Vikings, Saxons and Normans sported smaller steel or iron caps that cover the crown of the head(usually elongated downward only by a nose-guard). By the time of the Crusades, the helmet took on a full cylindrical shape that covered the entire Sallet head(the great helm ). Though this design offered first class protection, it was very hard to see through the narrow eye slits crafted into the helm. This helmet was also especially hot inside. As time went on the helm changed to a more sloped design to promote weapon blows from sliding off the head. These helmets, called bascinets, usually had face plates that could be raised or lowered given the circumstances. The final evolution of the helmet was the sallet, which consisted of a lower cylinder covering the neck and chin, while another top portion, which overlapped it, was placed over it like a pot lid.

V. Siege Warfare The art of fortress-building and fortress-storming was greatly advanced during the Middle Ages.

Though varying in form and style though the period, all castles served one primary purpose: the protection of the citizenry in time of attack.

5 V. Siege Warfare The art of fortress-building and fortress-storming was greatly advanced during the Middle Ages. Perhaps more than any other aspect of military science during the era, it was siegecraft that was the greatest accomplishment. The entire premise of the development of feudalism in Europe was the premise that powerful lords could provide protection their subjects in exchange for their loyalty, and it was their castles that gave them this offering. The Medieval castle was a grand structure. Though varying in form and style though the period, all castles served one primary purpose: the protection of the citizenry in time of attack. The concept was simple, when a neighbor attacked your manor, the best defense was to force a siege of your castle rather than fight an open field battle. It would cost the invader many more men in an attempt to take a fortress than it would take to win a battlefield contest. Thus, it is no surprise that castles were designed with great functionality towards the end of making attackers pay for their incursion. Medieval castles began as simple, wooden stockades(rings of wooden stakes) surrounding hilltop manor houses. This type of structure, first used by the Normans, Norman Style Stockade provided a simple but reasonably strong Castle deterrent to attack. It was from this basic model that castles would evolve. When castles were made of stone afterwards, they became the truly formidable citadels so associated with the age. A myriad of designs and configurations were achieved in castle design. The basic structure involved the building of a castle keep surrounded by a single, outer wall of defense, accented by intermittent towers. The keep was the central building that was the lord s personal residence and offered a stockpile of food to provide for the population during extended sieges. Indeed, during a siege, the entire civilian society would be crammed into the castle complex. Towers provided high points from which archers could shoot at those attacking the castle walls below. Later castles involved the building of two outer walls beyond the keep, such that if one was penetrated, the attackers would have yet another obstacle to overcome. A number of innovations High Middle Ages made the castle nearly impregnable. Double Bailey Castle Windows in the walls were mere slits, providing archers excellent cover from which to fire at attackers. The tops of the walls had crenelations, or jutting blocks that defenders could hide behind. To beef Hoardings up the defense of a castle, wooden hoardings that hung over the wall could be placed atop castle walls; defenders could drop various items on attackers of the castle walls below. These items varied from rocks to smoldering hot water and oil. Defenders also used wall-mounted cranes to hook or knock off attackers climbing ladders. There was also the great obstacle common to many castles: the moat. The moat was a deep, waterfilled trench meant to keep attackers from getting near the castle wall. To add to the danger, some lords even had crocodiles placed into the water.

Such daunting defenses mandated careful and powerful attack methods. The determination that drove the construction of castles was mirrored by the strength of mind to destroy them.

However, this type of siege had its dangers; the contracts of knights military service to their lords was for a limited time and while one s army was besieging an enemy manor, another might very well

The second alternative was an active siege in which attempts to capture the enemy castle by force were enacted. The most common way to break into a castle was through scaling ladders.

6 Such daunting defenses mandated careful and powerful attack methods. The determination that drove the construction of castles was mirrored by the strength of mind to destroy them. There were two ways of laying siege to a castle. The first style, which was preferable to the attacker, was to blockade the enemy stronghold until food shortages and disease forced its capitulation. However, this type of siege had its dangers; the contracts of knights military service to their lords was for a limited time and while one s army was besieging an enemy manor, another might very well sack the attacker s in his absence. Also, Medieval castles were so well-stocked and prepared for the eventuality of siege that this method rarely forced the garrison into surrender. The second alternative was an active siege in which attempts to capture the enemy castle by force were enacted. The most common way to break into a castle was through scaling ladders. Quite simply, ladders were laid against the wall and attackers would ascend them to the top. However, this was a dangerous approach to a siege since defenders could throw back the ladders or quite easily pick off attackers while they packed onto the ladder. Another way to gain entry into the castle was to enter through a siege tower: a mobile wooden tower that was pushed against castle walls. One close enough, the siege tower s door on the highest level slammed down onto the ramparts and the attackers stormed in. If one could not climb over, one could attempt to break through. The simplest way to break a castle was to break down its walls. This was accomplished both with siege artillery and battering rams. Battering rams were huge tree trunks suspended on ropes that were knocked against an enemy castle s walls or gates. If time permitted, such rams crews were protected by a covering shed that was made mobile with wheels. One could also attempt to break down fortress walls by tunneling under them. Specialized engineers would see to the construction of tunnels underneath the castle perimeter, each of which was supported by wooden beams. When the time was right, engineers would knock out the supports with ropes or set them on fire, bringing the weakened foundation and the wall itself down in shambles. However, castle defenders would sometimes build counter-tunnels to intercept the assault engineers. Aside from all of these methods was the mainstay of siege artillery. Catapults were still used just as in Ancient times. Whether firing boulders, flaming pots of oil or dead animal carcasses(to spread disease), the catapult remained the main siege weapon. During the Middle Ages a specialized catapult was developed Trebuchet that was more destructive than its predecessors: the trebuchet. The trebuchet was a rock-throwing weapon with a huge counterweight on one end and a cup on which to mount the projectile on the other. Standing up to four stories tall, these impressive siege machines would fire their load with great momentum and distance. Siege warfare would never again be the thrust and parry drama that it was in the Middle Ages. The main reason for the changing nature of the siege would be a weapon that made its appearance at the end of Medieval times: the cannon. VI. The End of the Knight As the Medieval era came to a close, lords found their stature somewhat stolen by the rising success of the merchant middle class. Towns, not castles, became the hub of society. Just as this political, economic and social shift was taking place, so too was the military reality shifting. Thousands of men-at-arms, soldiers recruited from the burgeoning town citizenry, could be cheaply equipped and raised as militias in times of war. Armed with powerful weapons even the greatest

knights could not stand up to them. The first sign of change had been the English introduction of the longbow; the bodies of French knights strewn across the field at Agincourt were testament to this.

Long pikes enable infantry to keep charging knights at bay. Next was the introduction of gunpowder-based weapons.

7 knights could not stand up to them. The first sign of change had been the English introduction of the longbow; the bodies of French knights strewn across the field at Agincourt were testament to this. Also, the pike made a new appearance towards the end of the Middle Ages; it revolutionized warfare as it had when Philip of Macedon introduced it centuries earlier. Long pikes enable infantry to keep charging knights at bay. Next was the introduction of gunpowder-based weapons. Citizen soldiers came to be equipped with simple muskets, crude but effective against the armor worn by the upper classes. Though many of these early firearms might just as likely explode in the face of the soldiers using them than be projected towards the enemy, with each refinement they came more and more dominant on the battlefield. And the cannon, the largest of the powder-firing weapons, made quick work of castle walls. With his knights humbled by the power of the bow and gun, and his castle weakened by the power of bombards(the earliest cannons), the lord lost his absolute grip on political affairs. Militarily, the appearance of the gun changed the face of warfare in the Western world as today s weapons show.

8 DARK AGES High Middle Ages Late Middle Ages Late Middle Ages

9 Military History Mr.Smith's Class Name: Period 1. What social/political system defined military roles in the Middle Ages? 2. What rules of conduct described how a knight should pursue warfare? 3. For what practical purpose was heraldry necessary? 4. List SEVEN weapons used in melee, or close fighting, during the Medieval era a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 5. Why did blunt(non-edged) weapons become more popular in the Late Middle Ages? 6. What does couched mean when referring to the spear? 7. What two types of bows were most widely used during the Middle Ages? a. b. 8. List the names of the types of armor described links of steel circles woven into a metal tunic overlapping metal triangles that layer the body padded armor made from stitched animal hide solid steel body armor made to fit the knight which came in two varieties: and )

10 8. What was the central-most building at the center of the castle complex? 10. What does one call the square blocks atop a castle wall? 11. What were three ways that castles were defended from attack(besides the basic walls)? a. b. c. 12. What were four devices used by attackers during a siege? a. b. c. d. 13. Why did weapons such as the musket and cannon alter warfare forever? 13. What ancient weapon reemerged near the end of the Middle Ages as a counter to heavy cavalry?

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