Chapter I Introduction INTRODUCTION athletics. high jump (1)

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2 Chapter I INTRODUCTION The jumps are the fundamental activities of human beings which had catered the food gathering and safety need of man kind right from the ancient times. Competitive jumps had come a long way in the development of technique and style. They are included in the modern Olympic Games right from their very start in Athens (1896). Track & Field consists of running, hurdling, jumping, and throwing events, held between individuals and teams at indoor and outdoor meets. The running and hurdling competitions make up the track events, while the jumping and throwing contests comprise the field events. In many countries the sport as a whole is called athletics. The rules of 20th-century competition are quite different from those of ancient times, the spirit of the sport remains true to its early Greek roots. The modern Olympic motto Citius, Altius, Fortius (faster, higher, stronger) best captures track & field competition. Each event determines who can run the fastest, who can jump the highest or the longest, or who can throw the farthest. The high jump is an athletics (track and field) event in which competitors must jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without aid of any devices. It has been contested since the Olympic Games of ancient Greece. Over the centuries since, competitors have introduced increasingly more effective techniques to arrive at the current form. The high-jump as we know it today first become popular in the 19 th century, when professionals performed for payment and were able to clear over 6ft.(1.83m). The Scotsman William Tivendale managed to clear 1.85m as long ago as At that time,the cross-bar or rope stretched betweens uprights was cleared with the feet together and with the trunk almost erect (1)

3 , so the head was a comparatively long way from the horizontal obstacles.(wikipedia) This event did not figure in the Ancient Games, but was commonly practised by the Celts. The first competition was organized in England in 1840 and regulated in 1865 when each competitor was allowed three jumps at each height and the crossbar could not be lowered in the event of failure. Taking off with both feet was forbidden and this rule remains in force today. Days were on passes the technique and style of jumping has been developed some important style are given below. The high jump, through its close relationship with gymnastics, was practised at the beginning of the 20 th century either with run-up from a standstill. Four versions of the jump from a standstill were included in the Olympic from 1900 to 1912, and it remained in sporting programmes until the early 1930s. Towards the end of the 19 th century, an American named Mike Sweeny proposed the scissors jump as an alternative to the frontal clearance. The scissors involved passing one leg over after the other at the same time bending the trunk towards the knees when clearing the bar. Sweeny technique was successfully taken up by Frenchman Pierre Lewden who being small adapted it to his physique. This emerged the style named scissors with return inside a scissors kick with internal overturning. It consisted of the following movement, while the forward leg was above the cross bar, the other one kicked upwards causing the chest to rotate towards the direction of jumping and a landing on the feet. Lewden s double scissors kick survived for the whole period between the two world wars, but the advantages of another technique were already being put forward by a Californian called George Horine during (2)

4 this time ; this technique involved approaching the cross bar in the air on his side with his body parallel to it, while completing a rotation. Hence the definition of rolling, known as the western roll ; this name was derived from the fact that Horine was from the west coast of the U.S.A.. As a result of this technique Horine was the first man to jump above 2m.(6ft.7in.), on 18 th may 1912 at Palo Alto in California. Later the western roll simply took the name of its inventor. Towards the middle of the 1930s another American, Dave Albritton, proposed a redical new technique for clearing the cross bar, involving the body being parallel to the bar, but with the stomach downwards rather than with the body sideways. Thus the straddle was born, which was clearly demonstrated by the Soviet trainer Vladimir Mihailovic Dyachkov and put to good effect by Valeri Brumel, who took the world record to 2.28 m. in An entirely original and revolutionary method of high jumping was provided by Dick Fosbury, the most recent of the North American inventors, who used his technique to win the high jump in the 1968 Olympics. It involves a curved run-up, which places the athletes side on to the bar from where he jumps and rotates his body so that he crosses the bar on his back before landing on his shoulders. However, although this new technique proved to be highly successful, the straddle still showed itself to be a very effective method when Vladimir Yaschenko jumped 2.35m. in 1978 thus keeping alive the discussions as to the relative merits of the Fosbury flop and straddle. Fosbury s technique makes it possible to use technically in flight all the force produced by the take-off. The first women s high jump contests took place in the USA in The event made its Olympic debut in 1928 with the first IAAF (3)

5 world record dating back to Like their male counterparts, women high jumpers have used many styles, from Scissors to straddle to the Fosbury Flop, in their pursuit of greater heights. The woman to have jumped highest over her own head is Greece s Niki Bakoyanni, 1.71m tall with a best jump of 2.03m. Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) holds the men s world record having cleared 2.45m Stefka Kostadinova (Bulgaria) holds the women s world record having cleared 2.09m Marshall Brooks (Great Britain Republic) was the first, to record the height of six feet in 1876 using a feet first technique. The "Scissors" was first used by William Page (United States America) in 1874 and was soon followed by the Eastern Cut-off, developed by Michael Sweeney (USA). George Horine, in 1912, was the first person to jump 2.00m using the Western Roll. Until 1936 the rules stated that the crossbar had to be jumped feet first. In 1925 the IAAF decided that the crossbar supports should face each other so that simply touching the crossbar would cause it to fall. In 1941 Les Steers (USA), using the Straddle style, cleared 2.11m. Further changes to the rules limited the permitted thickness of the soles of jumpers shoes. The long jump (formerly called "broad jump") is an athletics (track and field) event in which athletes combine speed, strength, and agility in an attempt to land as far from the take-off point as possible. Competitors sprint down a runway (usually coated with the same rubberized surface as running tracks, crumb rubber or vulcanized rubber) and jump as far as they can take off from a wooden board into a pit filled with finely ground gravel or sand. The distance traveled by a jumper is often referred to as the mark, because it is the distance to which the first mark is made in the sand. More specifically, a mark is the minimum (4)

6 distance from the edge of the takeoff board, nearest the landing pit, to the first indentation made by the competitor. If the competitor starts the leap with any part of the foot in front of the board, the jump is declared illegal and no distance is recorded. At the elite level, a layer of plasticine is placed immediately after the board to detect this occurrence. Otherwise, an official (similar to a referee) will observe the jump and make the determination. The competitor can initiate the jump from any point behind the foul line; however, the distance measured will always be from the foul line. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the competitor to get as close to the foul line as possible (Wikipedia). The long jump was one of the events of the original Olympics in Ancient Greece. The athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were called halteres. These weights would be swung forward as the athlete jumped, in order to increase momentum. It is commonly believed that the jumper would throw the weights behind him in mid-air to increase his forward momentum, however, halteres were held throughout the duration of the jump. Swinging them down and back at the end of the jump would change the athlete's center of gravity and allow the athlete to stretch his legs outward, increasing his distance. Most notable in the ancient sport was a man called Chionis, who in the 656BC Olympics staged a jump which was equal to 7 meters and 5 centimeters (23 feet and 1.5 inches). The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since the inception of the Games in In 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart recommended the running broad jump as a standardized track and field event for women. However, it was not until 1928 that women were allowed to compete in the event at the Olympic level. (5)

7 There are four main components of the long jump: the approach run, the last two strides, takeoff, and action in the air and landing. Speed in the run-up, or approach and a high leap off the board are the fundamentals of success. Because speed is such an important factor of the approach, it is not surprising that many sprinters, notably including Carl Lewis, also compete successfully in the long jump. Once a competitor leaves contact with the ground there is nothing that can be done to alter the flight path of his or her center of gravity. What will affect the distance of the jump is the body position at landing. If a competitor was to leave the ground without taking any action to prevent forward rotation in the air, the body would naturally move into a facedown position as the velocity of the lower half of the body at takeoff is greater than the upper half of the body due to the contact with the ground. The three predominant in-the-air techniques used in the long jump in order of increasing difficulty of execution are the sail, hang, and hitch-kick. The sail technique is one of the most basic long jump techniques practiced by competitors. After the takeoff phase is complete, the jumper immediately lifts the legs into a toe-touching position. This is useful for the novice jumper, as it allows the competitor to move into the landing position early. The downside of this technique is that it does not counter the body s natural tendency to rotate too far forward. The hang technique works by lengthening the body to make it as efficiently long as possible. Here both the arms and legs are extended to reach a maximum distance from the hips. This position is held until after the jumper reaches the apex of the jump, at which point the athlete will snap the legs forward into a landing position. This technique helps to (6)

8 diminish the tendency to tumble forward or lose the extension of the body. Generally the competitor is encouraged to flex the knees at a 90 degree angle, which enables the feet to swing with the fastest possible angular momentum when snapping into the landing position. The hitch-kick is also known as cycling or running in the air. As the name might suggest, this technique relies on a cycling action of the arms and legs through the air to maintain an upright body position. This technique takes longer to execute and is therefore generally reserved for more experienced jumpers. In-the-air techniques are generally selected by the athlete and coach during training based on an individual athlete s skills and experience. When landing, it is the primary objective of the competitor not to fall back in the landing pit. The jump is measured from the location in which the body contacts the sand closest to the takeoff point. For this reason many jumpers will work on keeping their feet in front of the body at a maximum distance from the hips. Upon landing, competitors will often use their arms in a sweeping motion to help keep the legs up and the body forward. Generally a jumper will bend the knees upon contacting the ground to cushion the impact on the body. Between 1922 and 1927, the Americans William De Hart Hubbard (co-holder of the world 100 yards record of 9.6) and Robert LeGendre introduced the "hitch kick", a running motion of the legs in mid-air. Variations of this, and the more simple `hang` technique, remain the norm today. The first women s long jump contests took place in the USA in The first IAAF women s world record dates back to 1928 although the event did not make its first Olympic appearance until London in Mike Powell (USA) holds the men s holds the women`s world record having cleared 7.52m.world record having cleared 8.95m. Galina Chistyakova (IAAF). (7)

9 The triple jump is an athletics (track and field) event, previously also known as "hop, step and jump", whose various names describe the actions a competitor takes. The athlete runs down a runway until he reaches a designated mark, from which the jump is measured. The takeoff mark is a board, and in modern championships a strip of plasticine or modeling clay is attached to the board to record athletes overstepping the mark. The first landing has to be done with the takeoff foot. The next phase is a step, landing on the opposite foot, and is followed by the jump, into a sand-filled box, as in the long jump. A "foul" or missed jump occurs when a jumper oversteps the launch mark (most commonly), misses the pit entirely, or does not perform the attempt in the allotted amount of time (usually about one minute) (Wikipedia). The original triple jump as practised by the Greeks was no more than three long jumps one after another. The Celts invented a style of three jumps in a continuous action and this was regulated at the end of the XIX century, first by the Irish and then by the Americans. Originally a hop-hop-jump, with the first two hops taken from the same foot, the triple jump became the hop-step-jump after The triple jump has been included in the modern Olympic Games since its first celebration in In fact, the first modern Olympic Champion, James Connolly, was a triple jumper, however, the event at this time consisted of two hops and a jump. In 1996, a triple jump event for women was added to the Olympics, having already been included in both the Outdoor World Championships and World Indoor Championships. Records of a women s triple jump contest held indoors in the USA date back to 1899 and, although it had no official recognition, the event was staged regularly, particularly in the USA, the USSR and China. The (8)

10 first IAAF women s world record was ratified in 1990 and the event appeared for the first time in the IAAF World Championships in Jonathan Edwards (Great Britain) holds the men s world record having cleared 18.29m. Inessa Kravets (Ukraine) holds the women s world record having cleared 15.50m Poles were used as a practical means of passing over natural obstacles in places such as the marshy provinces of Friesland in The Netherlands, along the North Sea, and the great level of the Fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The artificial draining of these marshes created a network of open drains or canals intersecting each other at right angles. In order to cross these without getting wet, while avoiding tedious roundabout journeys over bridges, a stack of jumping poles was kept at every house and used for vaulting over the canals. In Friesland, where it is called fierljeppen, it has continued to be a folkloristic activity with annual competitions. Broadjumping with the pole, though the original form of the sport, has never found its way into organized athletics, the high jump being the only form recognized. Competitive pole vaulting began with bamboo poles. As the heights attained increased, the bamboo poles gave way to tubular steel, which was tapered at each end. Today's pole vaulters benefit from poles produced by wrapping sheets of fiberglass around a pole mandrel (pattern), to produce a slightly pre-bent pole that bends more easily under the compression caused by an athlete's take-off. Different fiberglass types, including carbon-fiber, are used to give poles specific characteristics intended to promote higher jumps. In recent years, carbon fiber has been added to the commonly used E-glass and S-glass prepreg materials in order to create a pole with a lighter carry weight. (9)

11 The ancient Greeks knew Pole-Vaulting and the Cretans used long poles to vault over bulls. The Celts used to pole vault - but for length. This event became a vertical jump in Germany around 1775, during gymnastics competitions. The year 1850 saw the first competition of "running pole leaping". In 1957 another American, Bob Gutowski, used an aluminium pole to set a world record of 4.78m, which was broken in 1960 by Don Bragg (USA) who used a steel pole to clear 4.80m. This period also saw the introduction of landing mattresses, which meant improved safety for competitors. The fibreglass pole, which permitted flexion and has revolutionised vaulting technique, saw the light of day in the USA in The first world record using this material was set in 1961 by George Davies (USA) with 4.83m. Although women`s pole vault performances have been registered since 1911, the event has only been taken seriously - with the Chinese in the vanguard - in the last few years. The approach consists of the vaulter sprinting down the runway in such a way as to achieve maximum speed and correct take-off position upon reaching the pit. The pole is usually carried upright to some degree at the beginning of the approach, then gradually lowered as the vaulter gets closer to the pit. By doing this the vaulter can use the potential energy stored from carrying the pole upright to his advantage. It is common for vaulters to use long, powerful strides at the beginning of the approach, then accelerate by increasing stride frequency while maintaining the same stride length. Unlike short sprinting events such as the 100 m in which a forward lean is used to accelerate, vaulters maintain an upright torso position throughout the approach because staying as tall as possible is important to the next phase of the vault. (10)

12 The plant and take off is initiated typically three steps out from the final step. Vaulters (usually) will count their steps backwards from their starting point to the box only counting the steps taken on the left foot (vice-versa for left handers) except for the second step from the box, which is taken by the right foot. For example; a vaulter on a "ten count" (referring to the number of counted steps from the starting point to the box) would count backwards from ten, only counting the steps taken with the left foot, until the last three steps taken and both feet are counted as three, two, one. These last three steps are normally quicker than the previous strides and are referred to as the "turn-over".the goal of this phase is to efficiently translate the kinetic energy accumulated from the approach into potential energy stored by the elasticity of the pole, and to gain as much initial vertical height as possible by jumping off the ground. The plant starts with the vaulter raising his arms up from around the hips or mid-torso until they are fully outstretched above his head, with the right arm extended directly above the head and the left arm extended perpendicular to the pole (vice-versa for left handed vaulters). At the same time, the vaulter is dropping the pole tip into the box. On the final step, the vaulter jumps off the trail leg which should always remain straight and then drives the front knee forward. As the pole slides into the back of the box the pole begins to bend and the vaulter continues up and forward, leaving the trail leg angled down and behind him. The swing and row simply consists of the vaulter swinging his trail leg forward and rowing his arms down, while trying to keep both arms and left leg as straight as possible. Effectively, this causes a double pendulum motion, with the top of the pole moving forward and pivoting from the box, while the vaulter acts as a second pendulum pivoting from the right hand. This action results in even more potential energy being (11)

13 stored in the pole, all of which will be returned to the vaulter in later phases. The swing continues until the hands are near the shins and feet of the vaulter, with the vaulter facing upward in a curled position. The curled position is also known as "the basket" and is generally held slightly longer when trying to attain higher heights. Another form of swing is called the double leg drop. After executing a normal take-off, the vaulter lets his lead leg drop and swings with both legs together. In doing this, the weight of the vaulter's lower body is centered further from his rotational axis, making it more difficult for the vaulter to swing with as great a speed as with a single legged swing. For the same reason, a vaulter with constant rotational speed will load the pole with more energy using a double legged swing than a single legged swing. Because the slower swing can make it more difficult for a vaulter to get in position for the rockback, the double leg drop is typically not taught as the conventional method. A successful double leg drop is exemplified by French vaulter Jean Galfione. A third form of swing is called the tuck and shoot. This is accomplished by tucking both legs in toward the chest rather than leaving the trail leg extended. This has the opposite effect of the double leg drop: it shortens the lower body about the rotational axis, making the swing faster, but lessening the pole-loading effect of the swing. Because a shorter rotational axis can make it more difficult to use larger poles than with a longer axis, the tuck and shoot is also not considered the conventional method. A successful tuck and shoot is exemplified by American record-holder Jeff Hartwig. The extension refers to the extension of the hips upward with outstretched legs as the shoulders drive down, causing the vaulter to be (12)

14 positioned upside down. This position is often referred to as "inversion". While this phase is executed, the pole begins to recoil, propelling the vaulter quickly upward. The hands of the vaulter remain close to his body as they move from the shins back to the region around the hips and upper torso. The turn is executed immediately after or even during the end of the rockback. As the name implies, the vaulter turns 180 toward the pole while extending the arms down past the head and shoulders. Typically the vaulter will begin to angle his body toward the bar as the turn is executed, although ideally the vaulter will remain as vertical as possible. A more accurate description of this phase of the vault may be "the spin" because the vaulter spins around an imaginary axis from head to toe. This is often highly emphasized by spectators and novice vaulters, but it is arguably the easiest phase of the vault and is a result of proper execution of previous phases. This phase mainly consists of the vaulter pushing off of the pole and releasing it so it falls away from the bar and mats. As his body goes over and around the bar, the vaulter is facing the bar. Rotation of the body over the bar occurs naturally, and the vaulter's main concern is making sure that his arms, face and any other appendages do not knock the bar off as he goes over. The vaulter should land near the middle of the foam landing mats, or pits, face up. Thus after going through the technical aspects of these four different types of jumps, we had concluded that these four jumps require different conditional as well as morphological requirements on the parts of athletes engaged in them. The physical educationists have designed test procedure for evaluating the fitness and physique of young children. The performance structure for different games and events is being worked out. The general (13)

15 physical fitness of top-ranking athletes has been evaluated. Proposals are coming for the selection of potential athletes with the design of tests and body size predictions. The idea is to put the interested individual in a game or event in such a way so that one gives out the best of one s abilities. In this connection, the role of physique is of utmost importance. The physique which includes the evaluation of size, shape and form of an individual is of prime importance as to know how far an individual can succeed in becoming a top athlete. Studies on physique may be useful in choosing a suitable physical activity for an individual whose main objective is competition. The hurdlers for, an examples, have been found to have long legs and short trunk (Cureton, 1951; Tanner, 1964). Hildreth (1958) observed that all high hurdlers, who recorded times under 14 seconds were over six feet tall, with the notable exception of one who, thought only cm, had the typically long legs of the negro hurdlers. Longer legs are helpful to take the necessary long strides over the hurdles without the loss of time that jumping entails. The human physique differs in a thousand ways. It can be analyzed by studying the size, shape and form of an individual. For this purpose, a set of selected antropometric measurements is taken on an individual. The intergroup comparisons are made to understand the physical peculiarities of a population. From such body measurements, it is also possible to estimate the distribution of fat and development of bone muscle in the case of athletes and sportsmen where the physical fitness plays a vital role in the competitive performances. Tanner (1960) examined the physique and body composition of Olympic athletes at Rome during 1960, and inferred that the athletes were both born and made. (14)

16 The measurements of different body dimensions and ratios are of great relevance to the physical activity, especially in sports. The anthropometric assessment of physique involves the use of carefully defined body landmarks, specific positioning of the subject and use of appropriate instruments. The measurements that are taken on an individual are highly objective and highly reliable in the hand of a trained anthropometrist. Malina pointed out that the biological or functional significance of many dimensions has not yet been adequately established. Sports science has a long history of studying physique. Sheldon et al.(1940) used photoscopic and anthroposcopic methods to describe individual physique as three different Somatotype viz; (i) endomorphy (fatty: predominance of digestive organs, softness and roundness of contour throughout the body), (ii) mesomorphy (muscular: predominance of muscles, bones and connective tissues) and (iii) ectomorphy (predominance of surface area over body mass linearity. This method has basic shortcomings i.e., it does not quantify the various body dimensions, indices and ratios. The body profile technique of Mc Ardle et al. describes physique in terms of muscular and non-muscular components. The diversity in overall body dimensions can be compared among individuals or groups from that of reference man and reference woman. The Competitive sports demand event specific physique and body composition to achieve the success. De Garay et al.(1974) concluded that top-level performance in a particular event demands a particular type of body size and shape, if other aspects are being similar. They showed high correlation between the body profile of an athlete and specific task (event) in which he/she excelled. Various other studies also suggest that different body sizes, shapes and proportions are beneficial in different physical (15)

17 activities. Hirata (1966) suggested that a nation with people whose general physique is limited to the characteristics of champions in certain events must concentrate their sports training on those specific events only. He also concluded that Japanese with small body-builds are best for gymnastics, long-distance running, boxing and weight lifting etc. whereas the Americans who are large and lean are best for basketball, volleyball, swimming, long jump, short and middle distance running. Carter (1982) suggested that the athletes who wish to achieve success in sports at a high level should compare their physique with Olympic athletes. If the athlete's bodily structure is within the limit of the Olympians, he/she may achieve high performance subjected to the optimization of other factors. Behnke and Royce (1996) concluded that long distance runners are characterized by excessive leanness, relatively small body size and a deficiency of arm girth compared to chest size and leg length. The anthropometric and compositional study on cross-country runners revealed that runners are characterized by a relatively large calf and small biceps and abdominal girths. Mc Ardle et al. pointed out that athletes generally have physique characteristics unique to their specific sports. For example field event athletes have relatively large quantities of lean tissues and a high percentage of body fat whereas long distance runners have the least amount of lean tissue and fat mass. He also pointed out that football players are amongst the heaviest and leanest of all sports men. Sharma and Dixit (1985) investigated that physique is one of the most important factors, which becomes pre-requisite for better performance in games and sports. They compared jumpers with throwers and found that the jumpers were less meso-morphic and more ectomorphic. (16)

18 Body Proportionality is the most important aspect of physique. The relationship of length to breadth, height to thickness, length-to-length etc. of various parts of body represents proportions. This importance of proportion becomes evident, when we want to compare particular body parts of two persons who are otherwise different in over all size. The proportions or ratio keeps one measurement constant in all subjects compared and evaluate the differences in the other measurements. The body proportion can be studied in various ways, but indices method is best for determining body proportions. Body composition is another important morpho-physiological characteristic. The methodology for the measurement of body composition has been explained by several scientists. Fat fold measurement can provide fairly consistent and meaningful information related to body fat and its distribution. The sum of 'fat fold' is an indicator of relative degree of fatness among individuals. McArdle et al. (1991) pointed out that exercise-induced change in fat fold values can be evaluated either as absolute or on percentage basis. Peterson (1996) pointed out that body fat is a very personal datum and it is strongly recommended that this information be presented discreetly. Various scientists have extensively studied the body composition of athletes. Leasy et al, (1965) concluded that physical performance in which whole body moves, primarily depends on lean body mass (LBM). They developed regression equation for calculating body composition from performance in various tests (pull ups, standing broad jump). Parizkova(1968) pointed out that the proportion of lean body mass to fat is an indicator of degree of fitness for performance. (17)

19 Contrary to these reports, Uppal and Ray(1986) in their study on strength, body composition and performance of shot put and javelin throwers, concluded that there was no significant relationship in body density, lean body mass and body fat percentage to performance. Agbonjinmi (1998) also reported that measures of body-build and body composition of female college athletes have negative correlation with physical fitness index.it is well established that the athletes who are lean or less fatty but are heavy because of a well developed musculature, are superior in performance as compared to their fatty counterpart. Athletes with greater fat percentage have increased energy demand owing to their inert weight of fat resulting in relatively poor performance. McArdle et al. pointed out that athletes generally have physique characteristics unique to their specific sports. For example field event athletes have relatively large quantities of lean tissues and a high percentage of body fat whereas long distance runners have the least amount of lean tissue and fat mass. He also pointed out that football players are amongst the heaviest and leanest of all sports men. Lohman (1986) pointed out the errors involved in determining the body composition in children and youth prior to their age of chemical maturity (age 15 to 18 year for most). The fat free mass (FFM) is not stable in growing children and youths because water content decreases and body solids (bone density) increases in concentration until maturity. Physique along with physiological factors played a significant role on the performance of basketball players which was confirmed by Shamim(2002), who conducted a study on High and Low performance basketball players in India and observed that the High performers have (18)

20 greater stature, sitting height, weight, femur biepic condyler diameter, humerus biepic condyler diameter, shoulder width, hip width, upper arm length, lower arm length, thigh length, lower leg length, biceps muscle girth, calf muscle girth, wrist width, hand length and total arm length. They were more meso-ectomorphic, had better segmental proportionalities than their low performing counter parts. Physiologically high performer had lower heart rate greater vital capacity with no difference in systolic and diastolic blood pressure than their low performer counter parts. Tall stature and long lower extremities have been noticed in all games and events where jumping is involved, such as volleyball, basketball, long, high &triple jump, pole vault and goalkeeping. The height and height plus the reach of the players make the performance in these games and events much easier for taller men. The proportionately longer lower extremities seem to help in some way to lift the body up and on the sides at a greater distance during jumps. For activities such as high jumps or pole vault, the size seems to play no role in the actual lifting of center of gravity, but in the case of taller persons, the centre of gravity is at a higher level which is useful in crossing a greater height. Probably for this reason the gymnasts are found to be short(cureton,1951;hirata,1966) and the high jumpers tall(tanner,1964;hirata,1966;correnti and Zauli,1964). The L.H.&T. jumpers are also tall and possess longer lower extremities. The lower extremities, however, are not proportionately longer in these athletics, because the longer arms do not seem to have much to do in these events. In the case of the taller individuals, such as high jumpers, the center of gravity is situated at a higher level and this is (19)

21 useful in crossing a greater height. The lower extremities of the pole vaulters are not so long as those of the L.H.&T. jumpers, because probably like the lower extremities, the pole acts as a lever arm and gives an up ward and forward thrust to the body while jumping. The lighter body with less of fat in the case of these of athletes is advantageous because of the necessity of lifting the body and propelling it forward and upward for a better performance, creating proportionately greater strength to body weight. The longer lower extremities with smaller and slender trunks in them seem to be an asset for the reduction of relative body weight. Krakower (1935) studied 16 high jumpers and found that the type of the individual that succeeded in high jump had long legs, a short body and broad feet. Wells (1963) conducted a relationship study of the leg strength, body weight ration and length of the lower limb segment to vertical jump on 49 male college students, he concluded that none of the relationship studied proved to be statistically significance. Sodhi (1991) studied 22 track and field champion athlete of the united stated and reported typical track men to be slight in skeletal frame work with longer fore legs relatively to thighs, and longer legs relative to the length of the trunk but were exceedingly well muscled. The jumpers, hurdlers, and vaulters were relatively slim in skeletal build and were typically taller with longer legs and shorter trunks. The jumpers, hurdlers and vaulters hade relatively great leg length, trunk length relatively large foreleg length/thigh length. The physiological factors limiting one s performance in sports are well known. It is the understanding of interaction of all these factors that helps in designing the way for selecting the children for appropriate game. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of the air that can be expired with a maximum effort after a deep inspiration. The vital capacity (20)

22 varies with the type of work an individual does and the use to which he has put his respiratory apparatus. Athletes, swimmers, divers etc have a higher vital capacity it is also increased by practice. Vital capacity is maximum in the standing position. In sitting and supine postures there is muscular hindrance to maximum expiration of lungs. Shamim and Singh (2002) carried out a study to ascertain the difference between physical and physiological variables of high and low performance basketball players and found that the high performance basketball players had greater height, weight, lower leg, thigh, upper arm and lower arm length. High performance basketball player had better body proportionality in relation to mechanical advantage. They also had lesser heart rate and greater vital capacity. However there was no significant difference in the blood pressure of high and low performance basketball players. The pulse is the wave of increase pressure propagated centrifugally with each ventricular ejection, at an increasing velocity being amplified with distance with in the major conducting arteries. The pulse does not occurs synchronously in all arteries nor is the extent of rise the same every where. It is important to distinguish between the transmission of pressure wave and the velocity of blood flow. Radial pulse is generally chosen since it is easily accessible and lies against the bone. Since examination of the pulse provides valuable information as to the state of the circulatory system and general condition of athletes therefore it s of great importance in cardio-respiratory research. Griffin(1968) made a study on heart rate of female field hockey and basketball players. He concluded that playing field hockey was more demanding in terms of heart rates than playing the basketball. (21)

23 The general physical fitness of top ranking athletes has been evaluated. Proposals are coming up for the selection of potential athlete with the designs of tests and the body size predictions. The review of literature is showing a gap in line of comparing the physical and physiological aspects of four different jumping groups. The present study is an attempt in this line. The researcher also desires a scientific basis of selection of athletes and sportsmen. One may not take it guaranteed that every child can be trained to be an Olympian, for there are a few persons who have a combination in the development of each requisite factor of the highest degree. The idea is to put the interested individual in a game or event in such a way so that he gives out the best of his abilities. Statement of the Problem The objectives of the study had lead us to state the problem as- A study on anthropometrical and physiological characteristics of Indian elite male athletes of different jumping events Hypothesis: - It was hypothesized that significant differences would be observed in the anthropometrical and physiological characteristics of athletes engaged in different jumping events. Delimitation: - In light of resources available the study is delimited to 1. Elite Indian Male Athletes of following events: 1. Long jump 2. High jump 3. Triple jump 4. Pole vault (22)

24 2. Anthropometrical characteristics a). Anthropometrical parameters: - stature, sitting height, weight, femur and humorous bi-epicondyle diameter, shoulder width, arm length, leg length, biceps muscle girth, calf muscle girth, thigh muscle girth and ankle width. b) Somatotype (Heath and Carter Method) c) Body indices: - Sitting height stature index Ponderal index Thigh length-lower leg length index. Total arm length index Hip width stature index and Shoulder width- stature index. 3. Physiological Characteristics 1. Resting Pulse Rate 2. Resting Blood Pressure - Systolic blood pressure - Diastolic blood pressure 3. Vital Capacity 4. Resting Respiratory Rate 5. Body Composition (23)

25 Significance of Study The identification of talent through means and method of sports medicine, physiology, biochemistry, psychology and anthropometry however, has not proved to be satisfactory. These sciences are able to determine certain biological and physical parameters. e.g. VO 2 Max, heart rate, age etc. These parameters reflects only one part of human performance. A sports man had to pass through various stages to come up to the highest level of competition. This study will help to assess the possible anthropometric and physiological factors as a whole in determining the performance structure of the four jumping groups. As without assessing appropriate physical and physiological qualities in the athletes there are no positive results from training. This study will provide guidelines to understand the different anthropometrical and physiological traits of Indian top class jumpers of different jumping events. Thus it will help the Coaches Physical education teacher to counsel the potential or talented sports man at an appropriate age to select the right jumping event as per their inherited physical and physiological qualities. This may help in fulfilling our dream of producing world class jumpers. (24)