BELIZE BEACH CONSERVATION, MANATEE CONSERVATION, MARINE CONSERVATION AND DIVING PROGRAMME

Transcription

1 BELIZE BEACH CONSERVATION, MANATEE CONSERVATION, MARINE CONSERVATION AND DIVING PROGRAMME Caye Caulker, Belize BZM Phase 182 Science Report March 2018 June 2018 Dagny-Elise Anastassiou, David Best, Claudia Afeltra and Sophie Pipe 1

2 Staff Members Dagny-Elise Anastassiou (DEA) Project Manager (PM) and Principal Investigator (PI) David Best (DB) Research Officer (RO) Claudia Afeltra (CA) Assistant Research Officer (ARO) Sophie Pipe (SP) Assistant Research Officer (ARO) Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Belize Fisheries Department (BFD) for the continued assistance throughout the project. We would also like to thank the Frontier Volunteer Research Assistants that took part in our BZM 182 projects. Contents 1. Introduction Project Background and Location Cay Caulker Marine Reserve Aims of the project Training Science training and volunteer briefings Research Projects SMP Coral Reef Diving Surveys Introduction Methodology Experiments and Survey Protocol Benthic Surveyor Coral Abbreviations Data analysis Results Discussion Lionfish Study Introduction Lionfish Survey Methodology Results Discussion Caribbean Spiny Lobster Surveys Introduction Results Statistical Analysis Discussion... 38

3 2.4. Seagrass and Manatee Monitoring Introduction Methodology Results Discussion Introduction 1.1. Project Background and Location Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, is a Central American country on the Eastern coast. Belize is bordered by Guatemala from the West and Mexico from the North with the Caribbean Sea to the East. The small mainland area is roughly 290 km long and 110 km wide. The Mesoamerican Reef is the largest barrier reef in the Northern Hemisphere and the second largest barrier reef in the world (Seijo, 2007). Large areas of the barrier reef are protected by the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System (BBRRS) and therefore it has been designated a world heritage site by UNESCO for the past 20 years. Included in the BBRRS are 7 marine reserves, 450 cayes and 3 of the 4 atolls present: Turneffe Atoll, Glover s Reef Atoll and Lighthouse Reef Atoll (home to the Great Blue Hole dive site made famous by Jacques Cousteau) (Gibson et al., 1998). The Belize Barrier Reef (BBR) is the largest single section of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS) and extends 998 km from the tip of the Yucatan Peninsula to Honduras; making it the second largest barrier reef in the world. The Frontier Belize Marine project (BZM) was established in April 2014 within the Caye Caulker Forest and Marine Reserve (Figure 1). Caye Caulker (CC) is a small limestone island located approximately 20 miles North-Northeast of Belize City at N W.The Frontier Belize camp is located on the North island of Caye Caulker and hosts Marine Conservation, Diving and Beach Conservation volunteers. 3

4 Figure 1: Map of Caye Caulker Island with Frontier s Synoptic Monitoring Program (SMP) site locations indicated with coloured triangles. (Red = General Use Zone (GUZ), Blue = Conservation Zone (CZ) and Yellow = Preservation Zone (PZ). The project aims to conduct long term monitoring of key habitats and species through the assistance of international volunteers and in collaboration with the Belize Fisheries Department (BFD). CC spans approximately 8 km from North to South and approximately 1.5 km East to West at its widest part. The island is separated by a narrow man-made waterway known as the Split creating a North-South divide of the island. The majority of the island s infrastructure is located on the smaller South Island which holds a population of approximately 1700 residents and many transient visitors (CZMAI, 2016). Many tourists visit the island due to the abundance of exotic flora and fauna, which provide excellent snorkelling, diving and nature trail opportunities. The island is particularly popular for backpackers due to its easy-going reputation, a result of the strong Creole presence and community of Rastafarians. Tropical marine ecosystems worldwide are under threat from anthropogenic activities such as overfishing, unsustainable tourism practices, irresponsible coastal development, climate 4

5 change and pollution (Acosta, 2006). This has led to degradation of coral reefs, mangrove forest and seagrass meadows and thus a decline in biodiversity and ecosystem health (CZMAI, 2016). Caulker Cay is no exception as it provides a habitat for several endangered species such as the critically endangered staghorn (Acropora cerviconis) and elkhorn (Acropora palmata) corals as well as the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) (IUCN, 2014). Other threatened species found in the waters of CC include The West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus) and the common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates) (Fisheries, 2010; IUCN, 2014). Global fisheries are dependent on nearshore tropical coastal waters and reefs as more that 25% of marine life is found on coral reefs (Acosta, 2006). The coastal waters around CC provide rich fishery grounds for two of the most important commercial fisheries in Belize: the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and the queen conch (Strombus gigas). Currently there is a strict management regime in place to regulate the fishing seasons for each species which includes catch size and gear restrictions (CZMAI, 2016). Fishing practices include hand-line fishing, speargun, Hawaiian sling, lobster hook and conch fishing. These regulations aim to maintain healthy and sustainable lobster & queen conch populations within the area using size as an estimation of sexual maturity (Huitric, 2005). These data can be used to inform fishery management. The coastal waters around Belize are highly productive and local scale conservation plays an important role in protecting these at risk, delicate ecosystems. 5

6 1.2.Cay Caulker Marine Reserve Figure 2: Map of the zonation of the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (BFD, 2008). A large portion of the waters around CC are under marine spatial management. The Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (CCMR) is 11km long, extending to the Belize Barrier Reef from the Northern tip of CC. The CCMR was established in the early 1990s but did not become completely recognised as a marine reserve until 1998 at which point it was included alongside the Caye Caulker Forest Reserve (CCFR) as part of a single management unit. CCMR and CCFR encompass an area of 40 km² and 0.5 km² respectively (CZMAI, 2016). 6

7 This unit was set up with the aim of ensuring protection of the littoral forest, reef lagoon, reef crest and fore reef areas. CCMR encompasses five ecologically-related but distinct habitats: mangrove forest, littoral forests, lagoon marshlands, seagrass beds and coral reefs. The marine reserve is managed via three regulated zones. The General Use Zone (GUZ), the Conservation Zone (CZ) and the Preservation Zone (PZ). Table 1 below outlines the description and uses of each zone. Tourists are charged a park fee of 10 Belize dollars which helps subsidize management of the area, while locals may use the reserve for free. There are no charges to marine users outside of the reserve and these areas are not often monitored by the BFD. Despite the fishery management practices that are in place, overfishing and illegal fishing are still major issues in CC and across Belize (Fujita et al, 2018). As a result, many fishermen have reported that their catch per unit effort has decreased noticeably in recent years (CZMAI, 2016). Table 1: Description of each zone within the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve, Belize Zone name General use zone (GUZ) Conservation Zone (CZ) Preservation Zone (PZ) Size of zone 25km2 8.2km2 5.8km2 Usage Licenced commercial fishing Sport fishing Recreational use No-take zone Recreational use allowed No-catch zone No recreational activities, No boat-traffic The CCMR is critical to Belize s economy as a source of tourism revenue (on which many livelihoods are entirely dependent) as well as a provider of vital ecosystem services, such as protection from storm damage and wave erosion (Belize Fisheries Department 2010). There is little research into the sustainability and effectiveness of the reserve s current management plan, however this information is essential for the stakeholders involved (Polunin, 1993). 7

8 Management of the Belize Barrier Reef was originally envisioned through the creation of marine protected areas (MPAs), but the influence from land-based activities was not accounted for within these programs. As a result, the focus was shifted towards the previously described integrated, multi-sectoral approach currently used in Belize marine reserves (Cho, 2005). The research conducted by Frontier within the CCMR lies within the MBRS which is part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Systems Project, a regional SMP. This program has a standardised manual of methods (MBRS, 2003) for monitoring changes in reef ecosystem health which Frontier has incorporated into its own methods for effective data collection by volunteer citizen scientists. Surveys carried out as part of BZM include MBRS SMP surveys (fish, benthic, coral colony characterization and invertebrates) as well as conch, lobster, mangrove, seagrass and beach clean surveys. It is important to note that some surveys are seasonal and/or and volunteer dependent. 1.3.Aims of the project The aim of BZM is to conduct long term scientific monitoring of key habitats and species within the forest and marine reserve with the assistance of international volunteers and to report information on the health of the reef to our partner organisations. The current project objectives are to: To establish new fixed survey sites in addition to the sites suggested and already used by the BFD Continue to collect data on the health of the coral reef via the MBRS SMP methodology through benthic point intercept transect surveys, coral colony characterisation surveys and adult/juvenile reef fish surveys Continue to collect data on the abundance, sex ratios, maturity and size-frequency distributions of the commercially important Caribbean spiny lobster throughout the year and supplement the biannual data collection conducted by the BFD Reinstate and establish sites for data collection on the abundance, sex ratios and sizefrequency distributions of the commercially important queen conch alongside the BFD Continue and improve seagrass surveys on species composition, percentage coverage, abundance and health across the four established survey sites Reinstate the manatee monitoring project during manatee observation season Continue to build upon new connections with the local community, including local NGO Oceana and the local private school Ocean Academy 8

9 1.4.Training Science training and volunteer briefings To achieve the above aims, all volunteers and staff members receive a combination of briefings, science presentations and lectures and practical field training (Table 1) before conducting any marine surveys. For all tests a 95% pass mark is required and in case of any failures, those individuals will have to re-sit a different version of the test. All marine conservation and diving volunteers are PADI scuba trained to at least Advanced Open Water level. Table 2: Complete list of science lectures, field training lectures, briefings and staff member responsible for training. All training was conducted by DEA, DB, CA, SP Lecture/ Presentation/ Test Health and safety and medical presentations and tests Dangers of the reef presentation Introductory science presentation for Frontier Belize Project Introduction to coral reefs presentation Benthic identification and survey methodology presentation Coral health presentation Coral flash, revision slides Benthic test In water, practical benthic test Fish identification presentation Fish flash, revision slides Fish families test Fish ID test Juveniles and recruits fish ID test In water, practical fish test Lecturer DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA DEA/DB DEA/DB DEADB DEA/DB/CA/SP DEA/DB/CA/SP DEA/DB/CA/SP DEA/DB/CA/SP DEA/DB/CA/SP DEA/DB 9

10 Practice mock survey Queen conch presentation Caribbean spiny lobster presentation Seagrass presentation DEA/DB DEA DB DEA/SP Dive Training All diving volunteers receive training up to PADI Advanced Open Water. PADI dive training is currently outsourced to a local dive company on the South Island. This will continue until Frontier is able to offer this training in-house. 2. Research Projects 2.1. SMP Coral Reef Diving Surveys Introduction Coral reefs are highly valuable and productive marine ecosystems. They provide essential habitats and feeding grounds for a diverse array of marine fauna such as fin-fish, elasmobranchs, turtles, sea-birds and numerous invertebrates(conservation International, 2008). Coral reefs also provide an array of crucial ecosystem services such as fish production. Reefs also generate revenue through tourism and medicinal discoveries and are especially vital to human survival in developing countries (Bryant et al., 1998; Costanza et al., 1997; Hughes et al., 2010). The most recent global economic value placed on coral reefs is $9.9 Trillion US dollars(conservation International, 2008). Despite this, coral reefs remain one of the world s most heavily impacted marine ecosystems. There are many serious anthropogenic threats to coral reefs including overfishing, habitat destruction, increase in sea surface temperature (SST), coral disease, invasive species and poor land use-practices which lead to coastal eutrophication and heavy sediment loading (Harvell et al., 2007 and Hughes et al,. 2010). These direct and indirect pressures result in nutrient pollution and sedimentation which enhances algal growth and reduces zooxanthellae photosynthesis efficiency (Schutte, 2010). Stresses on the mutualistic relationship between coral and the zooxanthellae can result in coral bleaching (Schutte, 2010) and subsequent coral reef decline. The Belize Barrier Reef has experienced more frequent and severe ecological changes due to coral disease, coral bleaching, extreme weather events and human disturbance. Which have resulted in a decline from 25-30% live coral cover in the mid-1990s to approximately 11% live coral cover in 2006, and a subsequent increase in macroalgae (Wilkinson, 2008). The region was devastated by hurricanes in 2000, 2001 and 2002, which destroyed many coral 10

11 formations with recorded losses of up to 75% in some parts of Belize (Almada-Villela et al., 2002). In 1998 the reefs were previously damaged by Hurricane Mitch, a category 5 storm, as well as an extreme bleaching event which exacerbated the destruction caused by Mitch. The bleaching event was caused by unprecedented elevations in SST due primarily to a severe El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and likely enhanced by global warming, resulting in a 48% reduction in live coral coverage (Goreau et al., 2001). All habitats along the BBR experienced bleaching because of these thermal anomalies (Mumbya & Harborneb, 1999). By 1999, some fore-reef habitats demonstrated signs of recovery, while coral populations amongst the sheltered lagoons of the back reef displayed reduced coral cover, low coral recruitment and little indication of recovery (Aronson et al., 2002). Aronson et al. (2002) determined that during this prolonged period of elevated sea surface temperatures, anomalies peaked at 4 C above the local hotspot threshold, significantly greater than previous years sea surface temperature anomaly spike of 1 C. Currently coastal and marine activities in the CC area are relatively minor; however, this is changing with the rapidly growing tourism industry (Almada-Villela et al. 2002, CZMAI 2016). An increase in tourist numbers has caused an increase in waste, plastic pollution, boat traffic, coastal development and human interaction with the marine wildlife. These disturbances have promoted algal growth on the reefs which has corresponded to a decline in coral cover (McClanahan et al., 2001; Schutte et al. 2010). This has resulted in negative implications for fish assemblages which are directly associated with coral reef health. Belize has the highest fish species richness in the MBRS region, with over 320 recognised species, but intensifying fishing efforts are threatening fish diversity (Acosta, 2006). This is largely due to changes to spawning aggregations; spawning location depends on the recognisable characteristics of cayes and reefs, characteristics which may be lost with overfishing and other human activities (FAO, 2002). A documented example of this is the Nassau grouper (Epinephalus striatus) which during the full moons of December and January forms spawning aggregations annually in the same location (Aguilar-Perera, 2006). This allows fishermen to become familiar with these cycles which can lead to overfishing of this species. The Nassau grouper is currently listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and despite its protected status in Belize it is seldom observed within the reefs of the CCMR (Almada-Villela et al. 2002; Hughes et al., 2007). It has been observed that the exclusion of large predatory and herbivorous fish, such as the Nassau grouper, led to a dramatic explosion of macro-algae which in turn suppressed the fecundity, recruitment and survival of coral and ultimately reduced total coral cover within the reef systems (Almada- Villela et al., 2002). Consequently, the coordination and control of fish stocks is one of the primary components in preventing phase shifts and managing reef resilience. Disturbances to the invertebrate community have also profoundly influenced reef health on the BBR, for example; diseases, potentially caused by water-borne pathogens, have dramatically reduced populations of the herbivorous sea urchin Diadema antillarum (black long spine) in the Caribbean, which resulted in the increased abundance of macro-algae and reduced coral cover (Harborne et al., 2009). Many other invertebrate species play important roles in reducing macro-algae cover by grazing on the biofilms on substrate suitable for hard cover (Klumpp & Pulfrich, 1989). Furthermore, it is important to monitor the abundance and diversity of invertebrates which are vulnerable to overfishing, such as the commercially 11

12 important queen conch (Strombus gigas) and Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) (Theile, 2002; Perez & Garcia, 2012). The MBRS SMP was designed to standardise data collection and management for ecosystem monitoring. It aims to monitor changes in ecosystem health within priority protected areas, enabling quicker and more effective responses to changes in reef health (Gomez, 2004). Ultimately the utilisation of this protocol coupled with the long-term monitoring work conducted by Frontier will provide much needed baseline data on the health of the BBR marine ecosystem. In the past Frontier conducted SMP surveys in 4 locations within the CCMR; however due to weather conditions the fore-reef sites were rarely sampled. Currently, from phase 173, ten locations have been surveyed to meet the first aim of the project which is to establish new fixed survey spots. The back-reef survey sites are both shallow patch-reefs located approximately 3.2 km apart. Due to the shallowness of the survey sites coral is likely to experience relatively higher wave action as well as strong currents from the nearby channels: South Channel and North Channel (Komyakova et al., 2013). In areas of high water movement, the slower growing massive corals such as Orbicella annularis thrive particularly well as they can withstand moderate wave action, the larger they grow the more stable they become. In contrast branching colonies such as Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata grow much faster but as results become increasingly unstable as the small area attached to the substratum has a heavier load to support. In areas such as the back-reef survey sites where wave action is higher this structural instability is put under greater pressure often resulting in branches snapping off (Barnes & Hughes. 1999). In the very high wave action areas, the community diversity is expected to be low as few species are able to tolerate these extreme conditions. Additionally, low wave action areas also exhibit lower species diversity, but this is due to competitive dominants excluding other species (Komyakova et al., 2013). The baseline coral reef studies here will be used for long term monitoring of the MPA. Through conducting comparative studies of the different management zones with various levels of protection within the MPA, it enables evaluation of the productivity of the guidelines in place in each zone. For example, if a correlation between poor coral health and low fish abundance is found within the GUZ over a long-term data set, this could support the proposal of rotating the zones within the MPA or extending the CZ or PZ to include a proportion of the current GUZ to aid the recovery of coral species and sustainable fish populations. Moreover, if a significant difference in the health of coral within the CZ and the rest of the MPA after long term monitoring is not concluded, this could imply the regulations in place may require a re-evaluation. 12

13 Methodology Survey Area In each management zone within the MPA, similar sites are chosen for comparison. In each zone there is a fore-reef site, a channel site and a back-reef site. The CZ has two back-reef sites as this is the biggest zone. Table 3 Sites for coral reef monitoring studied in Caye Caulker, Belize for the 182 Phase which includes the months of March to June Site New or Existing Zone Reef Area SMP site Location 1 Existing GUZ Back Elkhorn Point 16 Q UTM Existing GUZ Channel North Channel 16 Q UTM Existing GUZ Fore CCC Fore 16 Q UTM Existing CZ Channel Island 16 Q UTM Existing CZ Back No-manns land 16 Q UTM Existing CZ Back Lobe City 16 Q UTM Existing CZ Fore Raggedy Ann 16 Q UTM Existing PZ Back Tap tap fish 16 Q UTM Existing PZ Channel The Swash 16 Q UTM Existing PZ Fore Corolitta 16 Q UTM Site 1: Elkhorn Point (EP): A shallow patch reef on the inside of the MBRS located just north of the North Channel, with a maximum depth of approximately 3m and within the General Use Zone of CCMR. Current flow and wave energy are generally moderate to high on days with greater wind force. Site 2: North Channel (NC): The North Channel has a wall of a maximum depth of 6m, the wall is surveyed and then the small patch of reef slightly further into the reef. This site is within the General Use Zone. 13

14 Site 3: Caye Chappel Channel Fore (CCC Fore): A relatively deep reef on the outside of the MBRS, with a depth ranging between 14m to 25m. This site is only accessible when the wind force is low and therefore the sea state is low. Site 4: Island (I): A shallow patch reef on the inside of the MBRS which is situated between the reef crest and the lagoon, with a maximum depth of approximately 5m and located in the Conservation Zone of CCMR. Due to moderately low current flow this site is frequented regularly by tour operators and dive companies. Site 5: No mannsland (NML): A barrier reef on the inside of the MBRS with a maximum depth of approximately 8m in the Conservation Zone bordering the General Use Zone of CCMR. Site 6: Lobe City: A patch reef on the inside of the MBRS with a maximum depth of approximately 5m in the Conservation Zone bordering the General Use Zone of CCMR. Site 7: Raggedy Ann (RA): A barrier reef on the outside of the MBRS, with a depth ranging between 15m to 30m. This site is only accessible when the wind force is low and therefore the sea state is low. Site 8: Tap tap fish (TTF): The North Channel has a wall of a maximum depth of 6m; the wall is surveyed followed by the small patch of reef slightly further into the reef. This site is within the General Use Zone. Site 9: The Swash (S): A smaller channel on the MBRS with a maximum depth of 2m. This site is located in the Preservation Zone. Site 10: Coralitta (PZC): A barrier reef on the outside of the MBRS within the Preservation Zone with a depth between 15m and 25m Experiments and Survey Protocol The protocol for SMP surveys is adopted from the MBRS SMP as the standard methodology used to monitor coral reefs at established sites (Almada-Aleman et al., 2003). Survey methods were adapted for the BFD, FAMRACC and FRONTIER. For each survey a minimum of three divers was required and each had a specific role (physical, fish, benthic) for which they had undergone the required training. At each survey site 5 replicates were conducted, roughly 5m apart to prevent resampling. 14

15 Physical Surveyor A physical surveyor collected coral community characterisation data. Prior to each transect the following information was recorded: date and site name and/or GPS coordinates. A 30m transect line was laid haphazardly within the general confines of the site in order to avoid any unconscious bias towards an area. The transect line was weighted at one end with a 2lb dive weight so it remained in place. With the aid of an underwater compass the transect line was laid parallel to the reef in a straight line to comply with the MBRS methodology. Coral measurements using a ruler began at the first colony located directly beneath the transect line which was at least 10cm in diameter. For each colony surveyed the following information was recorded: the species of coral, diameter and maximum height of the colony. Percentage of dead coral along with the presence of any diseases and/or bleached tissues was also estimated (Table 3). These measurements were repeated for the rest of the transect until at least 45 coral colonies had been sampled at each site. Care was taken to ensure that no diver or equipment was damaging the studied coral samples. Table 4: Defines the codes used for coral disease and bleaching Disease Codes BB= Black Band WB= White Band RB= Red Band Bleaching Codes PB= Partially bleached BL= Bleached, fully-bleached P= Pale, signs of colour loss/ colour change 15 YB= Yellow Band WP= White Plague DS= Dark Spot Fish Surveyor The Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) protocol for coral reef fishes has been adopted by the MBRS SMP as the standard methodology for assessing overall fish community composition. The first method involved belt transects which is designed to measure the density and size of fish species. A fish surveyor swam alongside the physical surveyor whilst the transect line was reeled out, so as to minimise any changes in depth. While the full 30m transect line was laid out the surveyor counted and recorded the fish species observed within a 2m wide visual estimate (1m either side of the line), counting while deploying minimises disturbance to the fish prior to their being counted. The size of each fish

16 was estimated by assigning them to the following size categories (<5, 6-15, 16-30, 31-40, >40cm). A two-minute pause was taken once the surveyor reached the end of the transect line before the surveyor returned along the line looking for any additional recruits (only during summer months) (Almada-Villela et al. 2003). On the return journey the surveyor swam along the 30m transect recording only selected juvenile fish, fish species <5cm and Diadema sp. Sea urchins. The latter was recorded as part of the fish survey whenever an invertebrate surveyor was not present. 8 transects were conducted at each site. The data will be used to examine the three zones within the CCMR, the Conservation Zone (CZ), General Use Zone (GUZ) and the Preservation Zone (PZ). The CZ and PZ are the no-take zones. The data will be used to analyse the densities of fish by family as well as total densities within each the zones and also to compare habitat type of the fore-reef and back-reef. The densities of adult fish will be analysed separately from the density of recruitment. Recruitment refers to the juvenile population. It is the addition of this population to the adult population which is studied. The identification of the areas of highest recruitment may identify the larval distribution sources (Almada-Aleman, et al., 2003). Furthermore, this will give an understanding of the adult species distribution and abundance (Doherty & Fowler, 1994). This can then be analysed across the different zones. To be able to determine which families of fish are more susceptible to changes in the community through either fishing pressures or habitat changes and environmental changes the study of the recruitment is vital (Planes, et al., 2009). The results are shown by the species known to be connected to reef health (Almada- Aleman, et al., 2003) Benthic Surveyor A benthic surveyor swam the 30m transect line to identify and count the benthos every 25cm, providing 120 records of data. Substratum percentage coverage was calculated from the data as (#records/120) * 100. SMP target benthos includes coralline algae (code=cor), turf algae (TURF), target macro algae species, sponges (SPN), gorgonians (GG) and target stony corals (see appendix for full species list). Any abiotic substrate, including sand (SN), bare rock (BR) and dead coral (DC), was also recorded. 5 PIT (Point Intersect transects) were conducted at each site. A PIT is a 30m transect along the benthic cover, recording the benthic cover and coral every 25cm Coral Abbreviations All target coral species are abbreviated from their scientific names as per Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA), where the first letter of the genus is the first letter in the abbreviation and the last three letters of the abbreviation are from the first three letters of the species. For example: lettuce coral, Undaria agaricites= UAGA. For a full list of target corals and their abbreviations see appendix 1. 16

17 Data analysis The data analysis will be done using Microsoft Excel and the statistical programme R. Microsoft Excel will be used for data input and records and creating graphs. R will be used to run statistical tests to determine significant relationships between fish densities, coral coverage and habitat type Results Coral Results In total, 9 full PIT surveys were conducted over 9 sites within the CCMR. Site 10 (PZC) was not surveyed due to adverse weather conditions and the site was not reachable. In the CZ 5 PIT surveys were conducted over the 4 sites providing n=3200 points of data, 600 for each survey. 2 PIT surveys were conducted over 2 sites in the PZ back-reef providing n=1200 points of data. 3 PIT surveys were conducted over 3 sites in the GUZ, providing n=1800 points of data. All percentage data is represented as mean ± SD and ± SE. Table 5 Average % coverage ± SE and ± SD of coral colonies across three different types of management site in Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (Conservation zone, General use zone and Preservation Zone.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June 2018 Zones Sites % Cover ±SE ±SD CZ CZ Fore-reef CZ Back-reef GUZ GUZ Forereef GUZ Backreef PZ PZ Fore-reef N/A PZ Back-reef

18 % Cover Looking at the habitat type of the back-reef CZ displayed the highest percentage cover of coral colonies of 36 ± 3.27, followed by the GUZ of 16 ± 0.18 and the lowest coverage found in the PZ with 12 ± On the fore-reef however the GUZ showed the highest percentage cover of 23 ± 0.18 followed by the CZ with 21 ± CZ GUZ PZ Managment Zones Fore-reef Back-Reef Figure 1: Average % coverage ± SE/SD of coral colonies across three different types of management site in Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (Conservation zone, General use zone and Preservation Zone.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June 2018 Within the CZ the most dominant hard coral showed to be OANN (Orbicella annularis), making up to 8% of coral coverage. In the PZ and GUZ the most dominant coral was PAST (Porites astreiodes) at almost 3% in the PZ and 5% in the GUZ, most commonly known as Mustard Hill coral. Among the three zones, majority of the coverage was in fact GG (Gorgonian) and algae such as DT (dictyota), HA (halimeda) and LOB (lobophora). The GUZ fore-reef exhibited the highest algal coverage of 59 ± 25.62, followed by the CZ forereef with 49 ± The back-reef habitat type showed a similar pattern with the GUZ demonstrating 26 ± coverage, the CZ 17 ± 8.18 coverage and the lowest percentage cover was in the PZ 15 ± This is displayed in figure 2 and table 6 below. 18

19 % cover Table 6 Average % coverage ± SE and ±SD of algae across three different types of management site in Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (Conservation zone, General use zone and Preservation Zone.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June 2018 Zones Sites % Cover ± SE ±SD CZ CZ Fore-reef CZ Back-reef GUZ GUZ Forereef GUZ Backreef PZ PZ Fore-reef N/A N/A N/A PZ Back-reef CZ GUZ PZ Management Zones Fore-reef Back-reef Figure 2: Average % coverage ± SE of algae across three different types of management site in Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (Conservation zone, General use zone and Preservation Zone.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June 2018 One of the most threatened and important hermatypic coral species in the Caribbean belong to the genus Acropora. Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata (codes: ACER; APAL; APRO), were once the dominant reef-building corals in the Caribbean (Young et al. 2012). In all, the Acropora sp. made up >1% of coral coverage in all three management zones of the 19

20 Coverage (%) CZ, PZ and GUZ. The GUZ exhibited the highest coverage of 0.63%, with the majority species found at one site, Elkhorn point. The results are shown in the table below. Table 7: Status of Acropora species across CCMR Reef Zone CCMR CZ GUZ PZ Acropora Mean % cover Soft corals are classed as Gorgonia, throughout the CCMR 377 total gorgonian colonies were counted this phase. The CZ had the highest percentage coverage of 8% on the back-reef habitat type, followed by the PZ with 6.75% and the lowest found in the GUZ with a mere 2.5% coverage. These results are displayed in the graph below CZ GUZ PZ Management Zones Fore-reef Back-reef Figure 3: Average % coverage of Gorgonia across three different types of management site in Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (Conservation zone, General use zone and Preservation Zone.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June 2018 The second and last phases of each year include studies of bleaching across the CCMR. This phase looks at the bleaching evidence before the summer months, and phase 184 will show the result of the summer bleaching event. Figure 4 demonstrates the percentage of corals across affected by bleaching the CCMR comparing the two habitat types of the back-reef and fore-reef. A coral was noted if it showed signs of paling, partial bleaching or fully bleached. The back-reef only 4% of the corals showed signs of bleaching, and 3.5% on the fore-reef. 20

21 Colonies (%) Back-reef Habitat Type Fore-reef Figure 4: Average % coverage ± SE/SD of coral colonies exhibiting bleaching across two types of habitat types three in Cay Caulker Marine Reserve (Back-reef and Fore-reef.) Samples were taken in Belize during April to June

22 Fish Results Across 9 sites within the CCMR, a total of 1842 adult fish were counted. The GUZ fore-reef showed a density of ind/100m2 and the back-reef a density of 34.51ind/100m2. The CZ fore-reef showed a total density of 39.17ind/100m2 and back-reef 34.51ind/100m2. The PZ fore-reef did not get surveyed this phase, however the back-reef gave a density of 27.15ind/100m2. Table 8: Density (ind/100m2) of each family with the CCMR in the fore-reef and the backreef across three management zones of CCMR (Conservation Zone, General Use Zone and Preservation Zone). Also included is the no. Transects, transect lengths, area surveyed (m 2 ), density of fish (ind/m 2 ) CZ GUZ PZ Fore-reef Backreef Forereef Backreef Backreef Forereef Lutjanidae (Snappers) N/A Scaridae (Parrotfish) N/A Balistidae (Triggerfish) N/A Monacanthidae (Filefish) N/A Haemulidae (Grunts) N/A Epinephelidae (Grouper) N/A Pomacanthidae (Angelfish) N/A Chaetodontidae (Butterflyfish) N/A Acanthuridae (Surgeonfish) N/A Pomacentridae (Damselfish) N/A Labridae (Wrasse) Miscellaneous Total abundance N/A Average abundance ± SD 49.6 ± ± ± ± ± 29.2 N/A Number of Transects

23 Density (ind/100m 2 ) Total Area (m2) Density ind./m N/A Density ind./100m N/A Graph 6 displays the densities of each zone whilst comparing habitat type of the fore-reef and back-reef. The back-reef displays the higher density in the CZ but lower in the GUZ CZ GUZ PZ Managment Zone Fore-reef Back-reef Graph 5: Fish density (ind/100m2) of each family with the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve in the fore-reef and the back-reef across three management zones (Conservation Zone, General Use Zone and Preservation Zone). The next set of results displayed in table 4, gives the breakdown of the density by family species at each of the habitat types. 23

24 Table 9: Density (ind/100m2) of each fish family in different habitat types Species Common Name Fore-Reef Back-Reef Lutjanidae Snappers Scaridae Parrotfish Balistidae Triggerfish Monacanthidae Filefish Haemulidae Grunts Epinephelidae Groupers Pomacanthidae Angelfish Chaetodontidae Butterflyfish Acanthuridae Surgeonfish Pomacentridae Damselfish Labridae Wrasse Miscellaneous Pomacentridae makes up the largest percentage for the back-reef of 34% followed by Scaridae making up 18% and Acanthuridae and Labridae both making 10% each. On the fore-reef Pomacentridae also makes up the largest percentage of 23%, followed by Acanthuridae making up 19% and Scaridae making up 17%. The size structure across the CCMR showed the most common sizes being 6-10cm and 11-20cm. The graph below summarizes the statistical results, giving the total, mean, median, standard deviation, standard error, minimum and maximum of each habitat type across each management zone of the CCMR. 24

25 Average recruitment Table 10 Total fish observed, mean, medium, SD, SE, minimum and maximum fish observed over the three management zones of Conservation Zone, General Use Zone and Preservation Zone on both habitat types of the fore-reef and back-reef in Caye Caulker, Belize in April- June 2018 Management Zone Habitat Type Total Mean Median Standard Deviation Standard Error Min Max CZ GUZ Back-reef Fore-reef Back-reef Fore-reef Back-reef PZ Fore-reef N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/ A Graph 6 shows the dentistry of recruits of each management zone within the CCMR. The breakdown of species compassion is displayed in table 9. The CZ has the highest overall recruitment density and the PZ has the lowest CZ GUZ PZ Managment Zones Graph 6 Average recruitment of fish recruits within the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve, within the three management zones (Conservation Zone, General Use Zone and Preservation Zone). Data Collected April June

26 When comparing the habitat types, the back-reef boasts the highest recruitment count and species diversity of , whilst the fore-reef gave a count of Table 11 Top 10 recruitment species composition within the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve across the three management zones (Conservation Zone, General Use Zone and Preservation Zone). Data collected April June 2018 Recruitment Fish Management Zones Common Name Latin Name CZ GUZ PZ Bluehead Wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatum Striped Parrotfish Scarus iseri Beaugregory Damselfish Stegastes leucostictus Brown Chromis Damselfish Chromis multilineata Slippery Dick Wrasse Halichoeres bivittatus Princess Parrotfish Scarus taeniopterus Stoplight Parrotfish Sparisoma viride Redband Parrotfish Sparisoma aurofrenatum Threespot Damselfish Stegastes planifrons Blue Chromis Damselfish Chromis cyanea Statistical Analysis A t test was run through the statistical programme R in order to test for a significant difference in fish abundance between the three zones of the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve: The General Use Zone, The Conservation Zone and The Preservation Zone. All tests done on a 95% confidence interval. Lastly, the general use zone and conservation zone had a p value of 0.056; though there is no significance there is a large difference between the abundance of each zone. Perhaps if a larger data set, such as the results from all four quarters were statistically analysed the difference in an abundance would be statistically significant. 26

27 Table 12 Table showing the p value for comparisons of each management zone (Conservation Zone, Preservation Zone and General Use Zone) within the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve CZ GUZ PZ PZ CZ GUZ There was very little difference between the abundance of the preservation zone and the conservation zone with a p value of This may be because fishing is restricted in both these zones allowing fish populations to recover from heavy fishing prior to when the protected areas were put in place, however this is just a suggested hypothesis and would require further testing. The preservation zone and general use zone had a p value of , displaying no significant difference, however a difference is still present. A linear regression test was run to determine the relationship between coral coverage and fish densities within the MPA. A p value of 0.64 showed no significant relationship. Second, an ANOVA test was run to determine if the variance between mean densities across management zones (CZ, GUZ and PZ) was significant. The test gave a p value of 0.230, determining there was no significance. The test was then run for habitat type (fore-reef and back-reef) and fish densities. The p value was 0.403, again showing no significant variance Discussion Fish SMP Fish abundances have previously found to be greater in protected areas (Sedberry et al. 1996). The results here add further evidence to these observations with Lutjanidae being the most abundant fish family. The decline in the species seen within our results and dominance of the protected Scaridae may reflect the impacts of overfishing. However, the results of the density (ind/100m2) indicated the importance of the zonation. The dominance of Pomacentridae throughout the CCMR may indicate that the commercial fish species are being overfished in general. There was greater abundance of Scaridae observed in the conservation zone and general use zone. This is likely due to the increased fishing pressure allowing the removal of predators such as large Lutjanidae and Haemulidae (Alevizon, 1976). The two habitat types of the fore-reef and back-reef show the dominant species to be Pomacentridae and Scaridae. Haemulidae seems to be a dominant species on the back-reef

28 habitat and Lutjanidae is dominant on the fore-reef habitat. A reason for this may be that Lutjanidae is the most popular commercial fish and therefore receives the highest fishing stress by local fishermen who usually fish on the back-reef. As their main competition for space and food populations are low the Haemulidae populations will grow and become the dominant species (Almada-Aleman, et al., 2003). A high population of Chaetodontidae on the back-reef is understood as they feed on coral polyps and sponges which are at a higher density on the back-reef than fore-reef which was observed in the previous phases: BZM 172, 173 and 174 (Motta, 1988). The low and almost non-existent species of Serrenida (Groupers) should not be taken lightly. This species is a highly caught commercial fish, but more importantly it is high up on the food chain and with density numbers so low it is very possible that the fish community structure will be altered and cause a trophic cascade, which can cause detrimental effect on the reef as the food web is so intertwined that affecting the predator level of a trophic level will have trickle down and possible catastrophic effects on the whole food web and ecosystem (Pace, et al., 1999). The overall total adult fish count of the last quarter and this quarter were very similar considering only 9 out of 10 sites were surveyed. Curiously, the PZ showed the lowest density of fish of only 27 ind/100m2, compare to the other no-take zone which displayed a density of 29 ind/100m2. This could be a result of zonation, and habitats with the zones. The PZ has a lot less suitable habitat and live coral reef than the other two zones. The Swash is the only area of the entire PZ with appropriate habitat type. This can indicate the necessity for a change in the zones. A suggestion to the future management is that the PZ should encompass more live reef, as from seeing the site of the Swash it is evident that the restrictions work as density for the swash boasted the highest ind/100m 2. The fish size community structure indicates that fish are not reaching sizes larger that 40cm+ very often. Due to low numbers of fish populations reaching this size, extra stress is put on the smaller size fish, causing a possible shift in the community structure. The size structure is an indicator of the fishing pressure (Almada-Aleman, et al., 2003). This data can be considered in the future when examining and adjusting the MPA management scheme in the future as well as fishing regulations. The lack of significance may be due to the preservation zone being significantly smaller in size, and therefore if the density per metre square was tested, perhaps there would be a significant difference. Moreover, as the preservation zone is a significantly smaller water body, competition between individuals will be higher for food, territory and breeding partners. 28

29 One of the most threatened and important hermatypic coral species in the Caribbean belong to the genus Acropora. Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata (codes: ACER; APAL; APRO), were once the dominant reef-building corals in the Caribbean (Young et al. 2012). 2.2.Lionfish Study Introduction Feeding Lionfish are recognised as excellent generalist predators for two significant reasons. Firstly, lionfish move slowly, additionally they possess cryptic colouring making them appear as a loose tuft of seaweed and thus providing them with substantial camouflage. In addition to this, while stalking their prey lionfish flare their large pectoral fins and encourage small and juvenile fish to herd towards them, after which they are rapidly consumed (Albins & Hixon, 2011). Furthermore, lionfish adopt an array of feeding strategies including ambushing prey as well as ejecting jets of water at their prey, disorientating and stunning them (Hixon, et al., 2016). The means by which lionfish intake their prey allows for massive numbers to be consumed at one time, it has been observed that over 20 individual prey fish per half hour (Albins & Hixon, 2011), this is facilitated by the ability for their stomachs to expand by 30 times their original size (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). Lionfish utilise a method of suction to intake prey, this process occurs through the extension of their buccal and opercular cavities along with a rapid forward swim, taking in prey within their path (Morris Jr & Akins, 2009). Further to this, lionfish possess bilateral swim bladder muscles which allow them the unique ability to control their pitch, allowing them to fine-tune their position within the water. This allows them to orient themselves in upside down and lateral positions within the water which facilitates their ability to strike swiftly at prey (Morris Jr & Akins, 2009). Lionfish are estimated to consume 2-3 times more native fish species than competing native predators within the Caribbean reefs (Rocha, et al., 2015). This along with the expansive number of species consumer, estimated at over 40 different species (Albins & Hixon, 2011). As aforementioned the diet of the lionfish is broad and comprises of both juvenile large fish species and small fish species alongside a large range of invertebrates. The native prey that are consumed by lionfish are of great concern as they consist of the commercially and recreationally important native fish species, including but not limited to, groupers and snappers as well as the ecologically vital reef grazers including parrotfish and surgeonfish, both of which are protected under strict laws within Belize (Hixon, et al., 2016). The above mention makes lionfish highly deleterious generalised invasive predators and a cause for concern within the Caribbean reefs. 29

30 Predators Within invaded regions lionfish lack natural predators allowing for the populations to grow without hindrance. It has been suggested that their lack of predators may have arisen due to their cryptic appearance and movements causing any native predators to not recognise lionfish as potential prey (Albins & Hixon, 2011). Undetectable chemical cues further assist in the ability for lionfish to remain cryptic and avoid predation (Hackerott, et al., 2017). In addition to this, lionfish are protected by long venomous spines which have the potential to deter predators from attack (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). It has been observed that attacking sharks and groupers will almost immediately retreat when attacking lionfish(albins & Hixon, 2011). The lack of natural predators present within areas invaded by lionfish will allow for the populations to exponentially grow if management schemes are not introduced. Reproduction and Spawning Lionfish have been observed to reach sexual maturity within their first year of life, with females maturing at around 180mm and males at 100mm (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). Lionfish are gonochoristic pair spawners meaning that females can release two floating egg masses, one from each ovarian lobe at a single time(butterfield, et al., 2015). Prior to spawn release lionfish will exhibit a courtship ritual which occurs before dusk and may continue for many hours proceeding (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). Post courtship the female lionfish will ascend towards the surface to release the egg masses. This will occur every four days throughout the year resulting in a total annual fecundity of approximately two million eggs (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009), leading a massive population growth and expansion rate. The lionfish embryos develop at the ocean s surface. Upon hatching the larvae s appearance is described as having a large head, long triangular shaped snout, serrated head spines, large pelvic spines and pigmented pectoral fins and they are estimated to be a length of 1.5mm. This larval stage duration is approximated at 26 days post hatching; however, this can be impacted by other factors such as temperature (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). During the 26-day post hatch interval the lionfish larvae are able to disperse long distances through ocean currents (Butterfield, et al., 2015). This means of dispersal and their high reproductive fecundity allows lionfish populations to spread across massive regions, in the case of the current invasive this distance is as extensive as 7 million km2 (Dahl & Patterson III, 2014). The Threat and Current Management Invasion can be defined by the successful survival and reproduction of a non-native species into a new habitat (McCleery, 2011). The invasion of a marine environment is exceedingly rare however in the case of the lionfish this invasion has shown unprecedented levels of dispersal and potential destruction of the invaded habitats (Green, et al., 2012). The means by which the lionfish were introduced into the invaded habitat is still under debate however the most widely accepted hypothesis is that the lionfish were released or had escaped from a 30

31 marine aquarium, this is due to genetic marker analysis suggesting that the expansive lionfish population occurred from a few individuals (Morris Jr & Whitfield, 2009). As previously mentioned, lionfish adopt a generalist diet and lack predations as well as their extremely high reproductive fecundity means that their ecological impact or destruction will be unparalleled if their population numbers are not controlled and managed (Ferreira, et al., 2015). Due to the high ecological impact that this species has on coral reef habitats and ecosystems, several countries globally have introduced removal schemes by which fishermen and divers are encouraged to hunt the invasive lionfish as an alternate food source (Barbour, et al., 2011). In Caye Caulker, Belize lionfish hunting is seen as a common recreational activity and Frontier, alongside a local business, host an annual lionfish derby during which there is a competitive removal of lionfish Lionfish Survey Methodology Lionfish surveys have been conducted since phase 173, these surveys were based off the rover surveys previously conducted. Lionfish surveys are an effective means to monitor the lionfish populations within the Caye Caulker reef, they are specific and introduce a new aspect to the project as well as assist the local people to manage and control the invasive populations. Each survey was a 45-minute rover survey, when on the back reef the divers could swim around the sites, looking closely in crevices and under rocks. When on the fore-reef, the surveyors would swim along the wall of a spur and then swim back up on top of the spur to cover the entire area of the spur and groove formation. Each lionfish and its size class, to the closest 10 cm, were recorded. This year the data collection will be done every 6 weeks to track the population trends. A comparison of the fish counts will be made between each of the three zones and each habitat type. From this phase lionfish population control dives have been introduced. The volunteers act as spotters and the staff will be equipped with Hawaiian slings and home-made zookeepers. Once a lionfish is spotted a staff member will collect the lionfish using the sling and store them in the zookeeper. After the dive, the lionfish will be measured, weighed and have the spines cut off by staff using scissors. The lionfish will then be dissected to look at gut contents and sexed. 31

32 Count Results Out of the usual 6 survey sites only 5 were surveyed this phase. The PZ fore-reef site was not surveyed due to bad weather. Graph 7 demonstrates the lionfish counts across the CCMR in the two phases of This phase GUZ showed a count of 2 and the CZ and PZ a count of Phase GUZ PZ CZ Graph 7: Lionfish population in the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve, data collected from January until June 2018 Comparing the two habitat types, 4 were found on the back-reef with only 1 of the fore-reef, with the largest lionfish found in the GUZ measuring 17.5cm. The population counts are too small for statistical analyse such as a linear regression however it can be said there is a 16% decrease in population in phase 182 compared to phase 181. We were unable to perform any robust statistical analysis due to the lack of sufficient data. In future, regression analysis over time may be conducted at each site to assess the lionfish population changes Discussion The CCMR in general showed a low population of lionfish, the population survey this year shows a significantly lower count to last year with only a maximum of 5 lionfish counted last phase and this phase even less, down to only 2 individuals spotted at each management zone. With only 2 years of population data, it is difficult to draw conclusions on lionfish population within the CCMR. The lionfish season is all year round and fishermen are encouraged to kill lionfish whenever they can, the immediate benefit to the fishermen is that lionfish can be sold to local restaurants on the island allowing for an income. Additionally, CC hosts a lionfish hunting tournament annually where hundreds of lionfish are removed from the reef in hope to keep the local population low and preventing the negative effects of lionfish on the reef. If 32

33 lionfish become a successful alternate fishery product the fishing pressure on the already overburdened native fish stocks could be lessened (Moore, 2012). The lionfish population in Belize was slow to increase with the first sighting in 2008 and only 13 confirmed sightings by This gave the Belize Fisheries Department and ECOMAR a chance to prepare fishermen and start their lionfish: wanted dead or alive poster campaign. It is possible that this is the reason that Belize has, for the moment, managed to mitigate the damage the lionfish could have caused if left unchecked (Moore, 2012). The PZ zone showed the highest number of lionfish potentially due to the ban of all activity within the zone. Contrastingly fishermen and tour guides have been authorised by the Fisheries Department to hunt lionfish in the CZ and GUZ which would explain the high abundance in the PZ compared to the two other zones. Allowing controlled fishing unfortunately would give the opportunity to illicit fishing activity so only controlled lionfish culling should be conducted by the Fisheries Department or the Frontier team, as it currently is. Regular population surveys will allow for long term monitoring of the lionfish populations. This project meets a knowledge gap in the lionfish population around Caye Caulker, which can be developed into understanding the site-specific lionfish feeding and behavioural ecology. 2.3.Caribbean Spiny Lobster Surveys Introduction Ecology The Caribbean Spiny Lobster (Panulirus argus) is one of the most prominent crustaceans in the Caribbean Sea. It is listed as data deficient on the IUCN red list as further study is needed to ascertain whether conservation methods are working (IUCN, 2000). It is a decapod covered with a spiny exoskeleton which provides protection from some predators. Like most crustaceans, they must shed (or moult) their exoskeleton at regular intervals as it does not expand with their own growth. During this process it is more vulnerable to predation as the new exoskeleton hardens. It can be prey for sharks and certain groupers who are able to digest or deal with the hard-shell-like exoskeleton (Oceana, 2015). This process occurs approximately two to three times per year (Williams 1984). Maturity is generally estimated to occur around 2 years and fully aged adults can reach between 12 and 20 years of age (Chavez, 2001), (Erhardt, 2005). 33

34 Commercial Species The Caribbean Spiny Lobster (Panulirus argus) is the most important commercial marine species in the Caribbean due to its economic value, both as a source of direct income and employment for the local population, as well as foreign exchange for national government (Acosta & Robertson, 2003). Lobster fishing is the primary fishery for 24 Caribbean nations (Gnanalingam & Butler IV, 2017). Furthermore, due to the high unit prices, the international trade of lobster provides improvements to the livelihoods of fishery-dependent populations (Monnereau & Pollnac, 2012). Habitat and nutrition These lobsters inhabit a wide range of habitats around Caye Caulker. The larval stage begins in seagrass meadows before migrating to mangrove areas during their juvenile stage and eventually migrating again to rubble or reef areas after reaching adulthood (Acosta, 1999). They detect food and prey using their front mounted antenna which are essentially olfactory sensors (Derby CD et al 2001). Most of the lobsters diet is made up of oysters, crabs, shrimp and other smaller crustaceans (Seudeal, 2015). They are also believed to show preference for certain foods based on their own habitat and neural receptors. Ecologically, Caribbean spiny lobsters are keystone species that serve as prey for a wide range of marine animals, including sharks, rays, turtles and moray eels (Seudeal, 2013). In addition to being prey they are important predators; their primary diet consists of molluscs (gastropods, chitons and bivalves) and arthropods (Cox et al., 1997). Caribbean spiny lobsters are found in a wide range of habitats including sand, seagrass, coral reefs and coral rubble. Status Due to lack of abundance data, their threatened status is currently assessed as data deficient on the IUCN Red List, this is likely due to their cryptic nature (Butler et al, 2013). Unsustainable fishing of this species could lead to further population declines and ultimately collapse of the industry, particularly in Belize, where a decline of 28% in catch per unit effort is being noticed by fishermen, from 2.7kg per fishing day in 1999 to 1.94 kg per fishing day in 2009 (Gongora 2010; Butler et al., 2013; CZMAI 2016). Protection and monitoring Caribbean spiny lobsters are social and when there is an abundance of food they are known to form high population densities, like that of the American lobster (Homarus americanus) (Behringer & Butler, 2006). This suggests healthy, sustainable local lobster populations can be maintained through effective fishery management and protected areas, like the Conservation Zone and Preservation Zone found within CCMR can function as refuge for the Caribbean lobster. In these protected areas lobsters are expected to be found in higher 34

35 populations, have a larger mean size and thus are often more reproductively successful due to increased fecundity (Acosta & Robertson, 2003). These protections should result in increased regional larval supply and net movements of adult individuals from the reserve to adjacent fishing grounds. In addition to the protection granted by marine reserves, the Belize lobster fishery is seasonal; the fishery is closed on February 14th until June 15th country-wide which protects the lobster populations throughout their reproductive season. Furthermore, Caribbean spiny lobster landings must adhere to a minimum size limit/carapace length of 7.6 cm and tail weight of 4 ounces (113 g), which is applied throughout the year. There is also a ban on the use of SCUBA for catching lobsters and other gear restrictions and license limitations. Despite this there is no current total allowable catch quota for lobsters (Babcock, 2012). As such fishermen can catch as many lobsters as they are able to find of legal size in the general use zone devastating the local lobster population in this zone, however it is predicted that 2% of annual catches are undersized and thus illegal (Gongora, 2004). Given the importance of the Caribbean spiny lobster at both an economic and ecosystem level, it is essential to assess the effectiveness of the conservation efforts mentioned above, to gain an insight into the sustainability of the lobster fishery. Frontier aims to carry out longterm monitoring and assessment of the local population size structure and sex ratios of the Caribbean spiny lobster. Surveys are conducted and compared between each zone of CCMR to provide data on the effectiveness of spatial management on the local lobster population. In addition to vital information on the sustainability of the lobster fishery, data on lobster distribution could potentially provide insight into the level of complexity and structure of the local coral reef systems. This is because higher densities of Caribbean spiny lobster have been associated with areas of higher habitat complexity, where the reef is intricate and creates crevices and hidden sites for lobsters (Rios-Lara et al., 2007). Higher lobster densities could therefore be used as an indicator of reef habitat complexity and general health. This report aims to monitor the population of the Caribbean Spiny Lobster throughout the year with the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve in order to monitor the populations of the commercial species which hundreds of fishermen rely on. Further management legislations cannot be put in place unless there is scientific evidence to support the claims Methodology The methodology for this is taken from the LAMP (Long-term Atoll Monitoring Protocol), designed by a local NGO which is the nationwide technique used to survey both lobster and queen conch (Acosta, 2006). In line with the aim of this study, surveys were carried out within the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve (CCMR). GPS location of the survey sites were recorded, to ensure the same sites were surveyed each time. Surveys were carried out using an active search approach, which consisted of a team of snorkelers actively searching for lobsters without the use of fixed transects. The rationale behind this method was to simulate local fishing practices and get an estimate of Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE); the effort unit was time (minutes). 35

36 Each individual snorkelled for 30 minutes looking for lobsters. Each individual lobster found was measured using a ruler to approximate its total carapace length. Sex was also recorded, which was carried out by determining if two extra claws were present on the back legs, or if there was an extra pair of swimming legs underneath the tail in females. Despite best efforts it was not always possible to visually determine the lobster s sex, as they are usually found underneath rock crevices with their abdomen not visible to the surveyor. Lobsters were not handled in order to minimize disturbance. If lobsters escaped before measurements could be made, then their carapace length was estimated by sight. During this quarter lobster surveys were conducted monthly on the 14th-15th of each month to gain better insight into how the population develops on a more regular basis. Each survey was conducted with between 3 and 6 individuals snorkelling the site and recording data always led by at least one staff member. A thorough briefing and sufficient training was provided to ensure the data recorded was as accurate as possible Results Overall the CZ and PZ contained the highest numbers with the GUZ being the only zone to have 0 recorded on 2 surveys. The largest amount recorded during a single survey was in February in the CZ with 18 (Figure1). Graph 2 shows the average carapace length recorded within the CCMR (in mm). The largest average carapace length (mm ±SD/SE) recorded within the CCMR was also in the CZ in February at mm and the lowest was again in the CZ in May at 48.63mm (Figure 2). The population structure between numbers of males and females were recorded and compared (Table 1) This quarter all lobsters were able to be successfully sexed with no unknown genders. Over all surveys completed 102 individual lobsters were counted with 65 being males and 37 females (Table 2). 36

37 Average Carapace Size (mm) Average lobseter abundance Month CZ PZ GUZ Figure 8: average lobster abundance recorded during close season by snorkelers using the MBRS methodology during the months of January to May at three sites in Cay Caulker, Belize CZ PZ GUZ Month Figure 9 : average lobster carapace length (mm) recorded during close season by snorkelers using the MBRS methodology during the months of January to May at three sites in Cay Caulker, Belize. 37

38 Table 13: population of males and females lobster sighted at three sites in the Caye Caulker Marine Reserve, Belize, Male Female Month CZ PZ GUZ CZ PZ GUZ February March April May June Total Statistical Analysis Using the statistical programme R, an ANOVA test was run to compare average population size across the three management zones and it showed there is a significant variance across the three zones with a p value of Furthermore, a pair-wise comparison was run to determine between which management zones a significant variance was found. A p value of was found between the GUZ and CZ, additionally a p value of was found between the PZ and GUZ. It is not possible to determine if the relationship between size of lobster and managements zone or month for the close season is significant after running ANOVA tests on R as the p value was less that Discussion The results showed a decrease of P. argus counts compared to previous surveys that were conducted by Frontier in quarters 174 and 181. Overall the trend of lobster population decreased over the last few months which is surprising considering all surveys this year have been conducted during the closed season for lobster fishing. This may be because the spawning areas are outside our survey sites and they may migrate to different zones during 38

39 this time. More study will need to be done to determine if this is a possible hypothesis and perhaps expanding our sites to include greater variety of habitats to include more habitat complexity into the surveys. Mangroves are used as a nursery for juvenile lobsters and this may result in larger numbers being counted if we include them in our studies. Carapace length has also decreased overall except in the PZ which has had the only increase in size and the GUZ which had a fairly steady average size recorded although the least number were sighted in the GUZ. The ratio of males to females was almost 2:1 with nearly double the number of males sighted across all sites. Females with a tar patch or eggs are illegal to catch, which makes this result curious. As expected the least number was found in the GUZ which could indicate that the zonations are working with the CZ and PZ showing higher numbers which may be used as shelter during the open season. However, the overall decrease in size and number indicates a worrying trend which could have major impacts on local fisherman and marine environment. Due to their economic importance a decrease in stocks could lead to more illegal fishing and a higher strain on other local resources. Taking more numbers out of the local area will also have an impact on marine life that relies on lobsters for prey. To collect more accurate and actionable data, extra sites will have to be included for the future. Length frequency distribution graphs can also be created when more data is collected (Gongora, 2010). The Fisheries Department of CC is currently understaffed compared to the size of the reef they have to patrol, this leads to significant amounts of illegal lobster fishing of undersized lobsters and even lobsters being removed from the conservation zone as noted by the Fisheries Department. Community established MPAs have previously been found to be more successful than government MPAs where local community fishermen (resource users/stakeholders) have a greater personal (Buglassa, et al., 2018). Creating No Take Zones (NTZs) in a marine reserve is often perceived negatively by the local community, therefore it is vital that positive results are shown from it in the long term (Buglassa, et al., 2018). The catch per unit effort has declined by 28.15%, stock size by 25% and recruitment levels by 36.1% during the period of 1999 to 2009 (Gongora 2010). In recent years the region has reported declines in lobster catches causing concern for the many livelihoods that could be affected (FAO 2007). At the current rate of lobster fishing the spiny Caribbean lobster will likely become endangered within this region. A stronger level of management is required within the local fishing co-operative to work in tandem with the fisheries department for improving lobster populations in the long term and to show positive results that benefit the local community rather than just seeming to restrict fishing practices (McDonald et al 2017). Currently more data is needed to make an effective plan for mitigating the lobster fishery damage on the lobster population, if possible the off season may need to be extended and/or increased policing of illegal lobster fishing is needed as in a similar study on the Galapagos islands (Buglass et al 2018). Additionally, recommendations currently include increasing the minimum lobster tail weight to 4.5 ounces instead of 4 ounces, a deep-water lobster stock assessment should be carried out and the traditional licensing system, which allows all fishermen to fish for lobsters, needs to be revised (Gongora 2010). One final factor that may have a large impact on these results is the ability of the recorders themselves. The surveys are supposed to mimic that of a fisherman, hence are done through snorkelling. However, most of the volunteers who assist in these surveys have never seen a 39

40 lobster in the wild before and do not have the eye to spot them as a fisherman who has been doing this their whole lives. Moreover, the fishermen are usually extremely talented free divers with the ability to stay underwater for a lot longer than the volunteers. A redesign in this survey needs to be contemplated to collect more reliable data. For example, working directly with the fishermen to see their catch and possibly survey their lobster shades may be more effective. More possible surveys and techniques that should be considered suggested by Gongora (2010) are surveys of deep water lobster populations and lobster traps and shade surveys. Night surveys may also need to be implemented when lobsters are more active but this would require additional resources like flashlights and a lack of experience in the surveyors may impact results (Buglass et al 2018). The research conducted here gained valuable information on lobster stocks in Caulker Cay. A continued study is necessary to understand the ecological process and anthropological pressures effecting lobster populations. The information gained here and in future study can be used to inform local policy makers for the preservation of lobster communities and sustainable fishing practice. 2.4.Seagrass and Manatee Monitoring Introduction Despite the importance of seagrass ecosystems compared to coral reefs and mangroves, there is a lack of data and understanding, leading to few inter regional comparative studies due to the unfashionable nature of its conservation (Duarte et al., 2008). Seagrass are primary producers and marine angiosperms that account for % coverage of ocean habitat worldwide (Duarte 2002). Acting as ecosystem engineers, seagrass profoundly influence the physical, chemical and biological environments within coastal waters (Fourqurean et al., 2012). As well as altering water flow, nutrient cycling and food web dynamics and stabilise sediments (Orth et al., 2006), seagrass is a vital food source for mega-herbivores in the Caribbean, including the green, loggerhead and hawksbill sea turtles (Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta and Eretmochelys imbricata respectively) and West Indian Manatees (Trichechus manatus) all of which are of international conservation concern (O'Shea et al., 2001, Hughes et al., 2009). Seagrass provides a critical habitat for juveniles of both commercially and recreationally important fishery species that depend upon the habitat for nursery and refuge areas (Heck et al., 2003). The predominant habitat for seagrass is within shallow coastal waters across most continents where they are commonly found; however, there has been a noticeable loss of seagrass coverage worldwide for many decades equating to a scale of hundreds of square kilometres (Heck et al. 2003). This loss is mostly due to rapid environmental changes as a consequence of increased coastal development and a growing global population (Lotze et al., 2006, Wilkinson & Salvat, 2012). The most widely accepted disturbances include sediment and nutrient runoff, physical damage, invasive species, disease, commercial fishing practices, aquaculture, overgrazing, algal blooms and increased sea surface temperatures (Orth et al., 40

41 2006). Such disturbances have resulted in the recent decline of seagrass meadows in Belize, which consequently has increased the necessity for the protection, as well as monitoring and management of seagrass meadows. Coastal ecosystems have the ability to sequester huge amounts of carbon. These ecosystems include mangroves, coral reefs, salt marshes and seagrass, with seagrass having disproportionately large carbon storage potential relative to their global area (Laffoley & Grimsditch, 2009). These ecosystems cover <0.5% of the ocean floor and form part of the earth s blue carbon sink, accounting for 10-16% of annual carbon storage in the ocean (Nellemann et al., 2009). There has been a recent surge in interest of carbon sequestration due to increasing global pressure to mitigate the effects of climate change brought on by carbon emissions. The recent focus on carbon trading and carbon pricing has resulted in considerable interest in quantifying the capacity of the world s ecosystems to trap and store carbon (Lavery et al., 2013). Blue carbon is also the name of an initiative and a new strategic approach to make use of the large carbon capture and storage potential of coastal ecosystems. Mangroves, seagrass and salt marshes are found on every continent in the world except for Antarctica and account for approximately 49 Mha. If this carbon could be quantified and sold on international carbon trading markets then this could help fund preservation and restoration projects, which would also help capture more carbon and ease the effects of climate change (Crooks et al., 2010). There are three species of seagrass found in Caribbean waters; turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum), manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) and shoal grass (Halodule wrightii), with turtle grass being the most abundant in the waters around CC. The implementation of weekly seagrass surveys in CC will allow monitoring of the health of the seagrass beds during the continued coastal development plans of CC (CZMAI 2016). This is a great opportunity to study anthropogenic effects on seagrass beds, in particular how coastal development affects this important habitat. By comparing seagrass coverage and health between north CC (un-developed) and south CC (developed/developing), we aim to provide data on the adverse effects of coastal development on seagrass communities. It is hypothesised that there will be a decrease in seagrass coverage in seagrass beds closest to coastal development. Manatee Ecology The Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) belongs to the order Sirenia which is the only aquatic herbivorous order of mammals currently existing (Bertram & Bertram, 1973; 41

42 Burn, 1985). These mammals form multispecies communities and partition seagrass resources for feeding (Marsh et al., 2011). A combination of global cooling after the middle Miocene as well as human predation in the North Pacific has reduced their diversity to only two living genera and four species (Marsh et al., 2011). These two genera or families of the Sirenia are the Dugongidae (dugongs) and Trichechidae (manatee) (Aketa & Kawamura, 2001). These can further be divided into four species through skull examination: the dugong (Dugong dugong), the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis), the West African manatee (Trichechus senegulsensis) and the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) (Hatt, 1934). The West Indian manatee is finally subdivided into another two subspecies, the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and the Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) (Marsh et al., 1986), both of which reveal a diversity of aquatic herbivore feeding patterns (Aketa & Kawamura, 2001). The latter subspecies is the one examined in this project. The West Indian manatees can be found in both freshwater and saltwater habitats (Campbell & Irvine, 1977). The Antillean manatee s habitat is along the coast of Mexico, Central America as well as South America, but can also be found in the Greater Antilles such as Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Alvarez-Aleman et al., 2007). Belize is believed to be one of the biggest strong holds of the Antillean manatee (Morales-Vela et al. 2000). They are found in shallow coastal areas, slow moving rivers, estuaries, saltwater bays, and canals, with pregnant females seeking refuge in even more shallow waters (Bengston, 1981). The manatees exhibit elusive and secretive behaviour, making them one of the hardest animals to study and observe directly (Bertram and Bertram, 1973). Importantly, they can stay submerged under water for relatively long periods of time, with a dive time between 16.3 to 24 minutes (Best, 1981). Several studies have contributed to the known feeding ecology such as Alvarez (2010), Bengtson (1981), Hartman (1979), Ledder (1986), Lefebvre et al., (2000) and (Reynolds, 1981). This study evaluates the manatee population and their habitat around Caye Caulker in Belize, a necessary study due to Belize being a manatee stronghold as previously mentioned and can be used to aid the efforts of conservation in Belize (Alves-Stanley et al., 2010). 42

43 Habitat & nutrition The shallow waters in their habitat are essential for feeding, particularly as less shallow waters do not require such deep dives and therefore save more energy and time spent foraging and grazing (Anderson, 1994). The seagrass communities in these shallow waters are thus found to be the most ideal depth for the manatee s dive time (Domning, 1982). The main species that comprise the diet of the manatees are marine angiosperms seagrass (Division Angiospermae) (Green and Short, 2003), leaves of mangrove (Rizophora mangle) and algae (Bengston, 1981). The manatees have one of the slowest consumption and passage rate of any mammalian herbivore (Lomolino & Ewel, 1984), allowing for a cellulose digestion coefficient of 80% (Burn, 1985). Using their pectorals, the T.manatus excavates rhizomes from the ground, which it then feeds on (Anderson, 1994; Packard, 1984). Both the dugong and manatee share a similar cellular digestion (Murrey et al, 1977), which ultimately allows for comparison between these two subspecies. Opportunist feeders Several studies indicate that manatees are opportunists at seagrass foraging, and specialize in the readily available species (Anderson, 1994; Anderson and Birtles 1978; Boyle & Khan, 1993; Domning, 1976). Foraging between 6 and 8 hours per day (Bengston, 1981) they can have a potential daily consumption of 42-65kg (Lomolino & Ewel, 1984). Most West Indian manatee habitats have access to both salt water and freshwater and so may choose to eat seagrass, despite this not being their preferred food. This is because it will be the most readily available food source, as seagrass meadows are found in the majority of the manatee s habitats (Domning, 1982). Importantly, the manatee loses and replaces its teeth like elephants, which means they may choose less fibrous seagrass, as low fibre content requires less chewing (Domning & Hayek, 1984). Thus the seagrass species preferred are Thallassia sp., Halodule sp., Halophila sp. and Syringodium sp. (Deutsch et al., 2008). The plants fed on by manatees While there are 60 species of seagrass (Green and Short, 2003), manatees feed on a limited range of species. Hartman (1979) suggested that Thalassia testudinum, Syringgodium filiforme, Halodule wrightii and Halophila engelmanni are the main dietary preferences of the West Indian Manatee. T. testudium is the most dominant species in the Caribbean due to their regeneration speed (Dawes & Lawrence, 1979). However recent studies conducted in Cuba show that the only species preferred by the T.manatus was the H.wrightii, T. testudinum, S. filiforme, - rhizomes and mangrove although the caulerpa paspaloides and Halophila enegelmanni were occasionally consumed (Alvarez-German, 2010). The seagrass species found in Belize, and specifically around Caye Caulker are H.wrightii, T. testudinum, S. filiforme with T. testudinum being the most abundant (Mudan et al., 2017). 43

44 The importance of the rhizomes The rhizomes seem to play an important part in the manatee feeding ecology. Above the ground it may seem that seagrass are individual plants, but the rhizomes are the horizontally growing stems below ground connecting each plant to each other, and where the roots sprout. The species Halophila spinulosa has fleshy rhizomes, suggesting high abundance of starch and carbohydrates (Anderson, 1994). The leaf Halodule univervis is fragile and often lost to drift (Anderson, 1998), and so the rhizomes are chosen for the high concentration of digestible starch (Masini, 1982) and non-cellulose glucose allowing for maximum energy for foraging (Masini et al., 2001). Thayer et al. Stated in 1984 that fibre makes up a high percentage of the plant (Burn, 1985), also indicating a potential reason as to why the rhizomes are favoured. All the field experiments mentioned previously indicate that the Sirenia feeding habits have the ability to change the seagrass communities, through composition alteration and nutrient modification. The experiments also conclude that the more favoured seagrass is the Halodule and Halophila (Marsh et al, 2012). Anderson and Birtles (1978) discovered dugongs moved on to new feeding grounds 5 or 6 days after grazing 30% of an area. A study by Adler et al, (2005) suggests that abiotic variables affect the ability of a seagrass ecosystem to tolerate grazing or not. Anderson (1994) investigated why dugongs were diving deeper for H.spinulosa, and suggested the nutrient content compensated for the high cost of dive. Anderson (1998) further discovered the seagrass species Halodule univervis rhizomes were rich in carbohydrates and therefore selected and grazed by dugongs. This corroborates with the study of Masini et al, (2001), who further discovered that dugongs excluded the dominant seagrass and chose early growth Halodule, which were low in fibre and high in nitrogen (Ledder 1986). This characterized the feeding habits of the West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus latirostris; Halodule wrightii was the dominant species in the diet in the summer and winter, but changed seasonally in spring to Syringodium filiforme. The above research may indicate why the manatees choose to migrate to new feeding areas between the seasons in Belize, also indicating that when looking at a feeding area the sediment type plays a key role in the site choice. If the rhizomes are unobtainable it would be unlikely that the manatee choose this area, allowing the expectation that the manatees will choose areas with a soft sediment type, with mainly H.wrightii or S.filiforme present. The manatees role in nutrient recycling Examining the manatee feeding patterns allows an understanding of the composition and preference as well as the role within their ecosystems. Seagrass meadows are highly overlooked but extremely important habitats for providing shelter for fish, shellfish and nursery areas for other animals. Unfortunately, these meadows are declining across the world (Green & Short, 2003). The manatees prove important nutrient cycling within seagrass meadows and communities because their grazing may affect the plant traits, such as chemical and nutrient composition. Here, the nutrient content and palatability of the grass determines the plant s response to grazing (Adler et al, 2005). While nitrogen (N) is usually replenished into the terrestrial ecosystems through defecation, this is not possible in marine ecosystems 44

45 due to the movement of water preventing any nutrient to settle on the ground and diffuse back into the ecosystem. The manatee and dugong play a vital role in regard to nitrogen recycling (Aragones et al., 1997); through the dugong-grazing patterns the bacterial nitrogen fixation was found to be disturbed. Thus, due to the serpentine feeding behaviour (Anderson and Britles, 1978), the detritus aerates the sediment providing substrate for the bacterial Nitrogen fixation (Aragones et al, 1997). Here, Adler et al, (2005) argue that the plant traits are the independent variable in grazing, however further study would be needed to find the cause for variation in plant traits. Overall the manatees are important in the nitrogen cycle within seagrass meadows. The effect of grazing by manatees Through examination of past studies, herbivores have been found to increase primary production through limiting nutrient recycling resulting in grazing optimization, occurring when the lost nutrient proportion is smaller than the lost nutrient proportion throughout the overall ecosystem (Mazancourt et al., 1998). Preen (1995) suggested grazing may alter the species composition within a community and act as cultivation for species, thereby preventing certain species growing. Zostera Capricorni grazed, for instance allowed the faster growing Halophila to take its place. Aragones et al, (1977) further found that nutrient levels in regrowth were affected by grazing. Manatees and weed control Manatees have been linked to important aquatic weed control (Campbell & Powel, 1976). Aragones et al, (1997) found that dugong grazing on seagrass communities in Australia increased the speed of seagrass species regrowth, such as Halophila ovalis and Halodule inivervis, by 25-35% in one year. The nutrient concentration such as nitrogen (N) increased by 30% and reduced the fibre concentration too. These findings are supported by (Aragones et al., 2006 and Hik et al., (1991). Threats Humans present the main threat to manatees (Bertram and Bertram, 1973). Anthropogenic influences contributed to the manatee being listed as protected under the Wildlife Protection Act 1981 (Morales-Vela et al., 2000). Historically, the manatees were also hunted in the US during the Depression of World Wars for their meat, due to their size and the fact that they pose little threat to humans when hunted (Campbell and Powell, 1976). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessed and concluded the Antillean manatee to be endangered (Deutsch et al., 2008). The mature population size is less than 2500 with a decline of 20% expected to occur over the next two generations due to minimal conservation efforts and finally the increased threats to their environment. The main threats to their 45

46 manatee populations include hunting, habitat degradation, and entanglement in fishing gear, pollution, natural disasters, incidental catch and watercraft collisions. Examining the history of the Steller s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) gives the perfect example of how important conservation of the manatee is. By protecting the individual species, their habitat will additionally be protected as a result of the umbrella effect. Steller s sea cow was the first aquatic mammal to go extinct due to anthropogenic threats. Their size was described to be larger than the Blue whale. They were classified as extinct in 1756, supposedly only resisting a mere 27 years of human pressure (Marsh et al., 2012). The short existence of such mammals shows how strong a threat humans may pose and should be taken as evidence that intervention is necessary for the survival of several marine mammals. In 1976, the Florida manatee population was estimated at mature individuals (Campbell and Powell, 1976); with decline expected (Marmontel et al., 1997) if no conservation efforts were implemented. The US took action and today it is expected that the Florida manatee (Erickson, 2016) will be down listed from endangered to threatened on the IUCN red list as the population size is estimated to be more than Survey techniques Survey techniques such as direct observation and habitat evaluations were utilised, this technique was used successfully in the study of manatees around San Pedro by Courtene- Jones et al, (2014). Underwater valuations allowed profiles to be created for different areas consisting of abiotic and biotic factors. To compare the variety of angiosperm quality in understanding the manatees choice a variable is needed. Past studies by Clergy (2003) cited by, Alvarez (2010) use the Index Foliage Area (IFA) in order give the seagrass species of T.testudinum and H.wrightii a comparable quality data set. The IFA for each species of a certain area is calculated from the equation below. Figure 3: Equation for IFA calculations; D = average density; A = average number of leaves; N0HD = average area m2 (average area/10000) The highest IFA result indicates the area with the highest density of plants with the highest average number of leaves per plant; therefore, the plants will have the highest surface area 46

47 per m 2. This means that areas with the highest IFA are likely to have the highest nutritional value and most abundance of specific species. Manatees will therefore choose the areas with the highest IFA of the seagrass of their choice, as it will give them the largest yield for the least energy spent. The underwater valuation will generate profiles of the sample areas, allowing comparison to each other. The IFA will be calculated to give the areas a quantitative comparison factor of seagrass to understand why the manatees choose a certain area. Deutsch, Self-Sullivan and Mignucci (2008) explain the main forms of conservation for the Antillean manatee are: Policy-based actions Educational outreach programs Research actions, site-specific and country-wide surveys Protected areas Species-based actions (reintroductions, stranding networks.) This project contributes to site-specific research action. Photo-identification of manatees This technique has been extremely successful in past studies in Florida, by Beck and Reid (1995), Langtimm et al. (2004) and O'Shea et al. (2001). By creating a data base of the manatee population, it allows for resident manatees to be identified and migratory behaviour to be monitored. As previously mentioned, a Florida manatee was identified in Cuba due to the photo-identification database (Alvarez-Aleman et al, 2007). Identification markers for the manatees will be distinctive scaring and unique features. Knowledge gap and rationale: future conservation and importance of the study Tagging a manatee allows for the observation of their movement patterns, but additional examination is necessary to determine reasoning for specific movements. From the literature previously cited it is evident that there are three things affecting the movement of the Antillean manatee; the temperature of the water they live in, their source of food and lastly their source of fresh drinking water. The water temperature varies slightly in Belize giving 47

48 the manatee sightings a high season and low season, with high season being May until September and low season being October to April (Morales-Vela et al, 2000). The understanding of the feeding ecology of the manatee is very important for their future conservation, as a lack of proper nutrients may result in health issues for the manatees as the sea cows experienced when they were forced to switch feeding habits due to seagrass communities declining and resulted in the loss of molars and teeth in the sea cow (Anderson, 1994). The manatees provide important grazing factors to the seagrass (Courtene-Jones et al. 2014), and therefore if manatee numbers reduce this will have a negative impact on seagrass meadows (Aragones et al, 1997). Morales-Furthermore, Vela et al, (2000) recommend that more manatee surveys need to be completed around the Cayes off Belize City. There is a known correlation between mangrove forests and seagrass meadows (Courtene-Jones et al 2014; Mudan, 2016). The South Island of Caye Caulker is highly developed, thus a comparison of the seagrass meadows found around the South Island and the North Island will indicate the effects that development has had on the meadows, the results of the study may be used effectively by the Fisheries Department when managing the forest reserves and possible future development on the north island. According to local knowledge the manatees are one of the main attractions to the island, and so if the manatee s feeding habitat is lost due to over development this may have a direct impact on tourism. Aims 1. Observe the distribution of the Trchechus manatus (Antillean manatee) around Caye Caulker, and their habitat 2. Test for a correlation between the manatee s distribution and habitat choice 3. Create a photo ID data base of the manatee population around Caye Caulker Methodology Aim 1 has been met through boat surveys. The transects completed during each phase between 172 until 181 allowed the identification of 3-4 hot-spots in which manatees are spotted throughout the year. Please refer to the Science Reports of phases 172 to 181 for the methodology of the boat transect surveys. In order to meet aim 2 habitat evaluations have been conducted since phase 172. Using the data collected from the boat survey transects the main hotspots for manatee sightings were determined, 2-3 highly used areas and 2-3 low use areas are used for comparison. The sites are deemed as high use sites if manatees are frequently seen there. The seagrass composition of each area has been determined using a quadrate sampling technique (a); additionally, the IFA (Index Foliage Area) of each area has been calculated (b). 48

49 Underwater Valuation: Quadrat sampling will be conducted using a 50cm x50cm quadrat, variables collected will be: Variables: % Cover of 3 main seagrass species (H. wrightii, S. filiforme & T. testudinum) % Cover of coral No. coral % cover of sponges No. sponges % Cover of gorgonian % cover of echinoderms No. echinoderms (starfish & sea urchins) present % of algae present Species of algae Using a 25cm x 25cm quadrat, the following data will be collected: Variables: Number of individual shoots for each of the species Average Height of each species The IFA is calculated using the equation: Figure 4: Equation for Index Foliage Area (IFA) calculations; D = average density; A = average number of leaves; N0HD = average area m2 (average area/10000) 49

50 The IFA is calculated by collecting 30 samples of each seagrass, for each plant the variable recorded will be: Variables: No. grass blades Height of each blade Width of each blade The IFA calculation will be attempted for Syringodium filiforme using the same equation and additionally the blade will be flattened in order to obtain the correct dimensions. The habitat evaluation should be conducted during the dry season and also the low season allowing seasonal comparison additional to the distribution comparison. Lastly, to meet aim 3 a photo identification database will be made of the current population. The data is recorded and collected by photographs and identifying their scaring and defining marks, also recording an estimate of their size where possible. The methodology of the project did not vary or change greatly. However, the hotspots for the manatees feeding habitat evaluation were chosen mainly through local knowledge from tour guides and fishermen. Three highly used areas, and three low use areas where chosen and are described in the following table. 50

51 Table 14: Description of survey sites on seagrass monitoring around Caye Caulker, Belize Zone No. Sites Description Behin d Split In front of Split In front of Base North Channe l East of North Tip South of South Channel South Channel West of South Tip Lat. 17o N 17o N 17o 47'4 2.8 "N 17o 47'2 9.1 "N 17o 43'59.2 "N 17o 43'2 1.8 "N 17o 43'2 1.8 "N 17o 43' "N Long. 88o 01' W 88o W 88o 01'1 7.1 "W 87o 59' "W 88o 02'28.1 "W 88o 00'30.8 "W 88o 00'30.8 "W 88o 02'22.7 "W Bottom Type Deep Silt Sand Sand Sand Deep Silt Deep Silt Sand Silt Depth 2-3m 1m 1m 4m 3m 5m 5m 2m Manatee Use High Low Low High High High High Low Current High High Low High Low High High High Within each site, 3 to 5 zones were chosen to sample. The quadrat samples were repeated 25 times each to give an average. Four zones have currently been completed successfully with the IFA of each of the seagrass species calculated using the IFA equation. The species that were shown to be the dominant species are the same as previous reports of this site which have shown; H. wrightii, T. testidium and S. filoforme. Further mapping and profiling of each of the areas cannot be completed until more sites and zones are surveyed. Each profile of the areas will include the information shown in the table above, additionally they will include; Average canopy height of each species Average IFA of each species A breakdown of the average density of each species A breakdown of the average % cover of each species Presence of Epiphytes, Echinoderms, Gorgonia, Sponges, Macro Algae and Hard coral. 51

52 Once all the profiles can be constructed the data can then be tested for normality using the Shapiro-Wilkes test. The normally distributed data can then be further analysed using the One-Way ANOVA, and the variables not normally distributed will be analysed using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. These tests should determine if there are any significant differences in any of the variables within each of the sites. Any variable which shows a significant difference will be analysed using the Mann-Whitney U Test to compare each of the areas to determine the specific areas where the difference existed. Additionally, to the seagrass surveys, a volunteer from the Tampa Bay Estuary Program has offered to map out the seagrass using satellite imagery, which may complement the surveys when final profiles are made Results Profiles of seagrass sites Table 15: Summary of survey sites; IFA, Canopy Height, Density and % cover Area IFA Canopy Height Density % Cover Site Zone Sf Hw Tt Sf Hw Tt Sf Hw Tt Sf Hw Tt

53 Index Foliage Area (IFA) Values Throughout all the sites, the dominant species is either SF or TT for percentage coverage. The highly used sites of the manatees have the highest percentage cover of SF across all sites. Table 7 compares the IFA values of the highly used sites of the manatees and the low use sites. At low use sites Tt has the highest average IFA of ± 0.29, Sf has a value of ± 0.08, followed by Hw with an average of 0.0 ± 0.0.When comparing the high use sites, similarly Tt has the highest IFA average of ± 2.16 followed by Sf of ± 0.09 and the lowest being Hw of 0.0 ± sf IFA Hw IFA Tt IFA Seagrass Species Low Use High Use Figure 5 A comparison of average IFA Values of each seagrass species of Sf, Hw and Tt at High use and Low use manatee sites, data collected during 2017, Caye Caulker, Belize A photo-id data base has been collected since April 2017, and now includes up to 13 manatee recorded, see appendix. Statistical analysis Using the statistical analysis programme R, the data was analysed for a significant difference between each of the variables using running the ANOVA test. Comparing each of the sites using the TUKEY test, there was a significant difference for each of the seagrass variables of Sf. The p-value for each variable is shown in the table 16 below. 53

54 Table 16 p-value of seagrass species Sf for the IFA, canopy height, density and % cover across each of the sites Species: Sf IFA Canopy Height Density Percentage Cover p-value e-05 The sites were then group together to test for significant difference between the highly used sites and the low used sites of manatee. The ANOVA and the TUKEY test was run, showing no significant difference with a p value > Further analysis was run for the abiotic variables collected. The variable which showed a significant difference between the highly used site and the low used sites by manatee was the ground type. The ground type of silt and sand gave a p-value of

55 Discussion The manatee database is the first to be created of the population around Caye Caulker. The database provides photos and descriptions of 13 manatees. The database is being used this season to compare to last season to see if any of the manatee are returning. There was no significance found between the health of the seagrass species at low and high use manatee sites, however with only one year of data perhaps a larger, long-term data set is required for statistical difference to be present. The statistical analysis results showing only a significant difference in the ground type of silt and no silt in the sites highly used by manatees and those of low use, may indicate that around Caye Caulker the profile for their feeding habitat will have silt so the manatees can easily access the roots. As mentioned above, manatee are opportunistic feeders and may not choose a feeding site based of the seagrass species but their areas where they will use less energy to access the roots of the seagrass. Therefore, it is of great importance that the study continues. The assessment of the seagrass health around the CCMR is of huge importance as this could provide support for additional protected areas to be put in place in areas in which manatees use as feeding grounds, particularly where anthropogenic disturbance may be impacting seagrass health. In order for this to be possible in the future, seagrass monitoring must continue over the coming years to produce a longterm data set. The highly used sites at site 4, 5, 6 and 7. At these sites, Tt and Sf are the dominant species. From all sites, these sites are the ones with the highest percentage cover of Sf. Furthermore, these sites have the highest IFA values of Tt. This suggests that the two species of choice for the manatees are Tt and Sf. Furthermore, looking at the sightings and the manatee behaviour, it is evident that the feeding ecology might not be the main deciding factor in the distribution of the manatees around Caye Caulker. The manatee s behaviour seen and noted down suggests that they choose the North Channel and South Channel for breeding purposes as mating seems to be a very common behaviour seen here. The health of the seagrass can be directly linked to the health of the mangroves along the coastline. Therefore, it is suggested it is possible to analyse the health and distribution of the mangroves to investigate a possible correlation between the seagrass health to the mangroves. Lastly, understanding the distribution and health of the mangroves around Caye Caulker may assist in further development on the island. Mangroves are directly linked to fisheries and lobster recruitment (Vaslet et al., 2012). This means that understanding the health and distribution of the mangrove forest around Caye Caulker is vital for the fisheries and lobster surveys. Lobster recruitment boxes may be placed along the Caye in areas of high and low current as well as close to and far from mangrove. Future Research 55

56 Another prospective project is to conduct GIS mapping of the seagrass beds around CC. The seagrass habitat has never been mapped in this area and so a detailed survey to examine the extent of seagrass beds would prove extremely beneficial. This mapping would provide key logistical information for the management of this habitat and start the collection of baseline data, which will enable monitoring of changes over time. If a suitable area is found, this could be used as an incentive to allow the designation of an extended area of protection. The proposed extension includes an area of reef which includes the critically endangered Acropora sp. and an area which manatees are known to frequently inhabit. A suitable area of seabed, for example, within the general use area in the northern extent of the MPA could be proposed as an area of algae farming for the local fishermen in return for the extension of the protected zone area, this would be an alternative livelihood for fishermen. The area allotted for algae farming will need to be where the seabed is barren substrate and not near seagrass or coral, which the algae could smother and kill through inhibiting photosynthesis. An extensive mapping survey would not only allow vital mapping of crucial habitats but would also allow GIS spatial analysis to present any potential sites for algae farming. Lastly seagrass mapping allows for an understanding a monitoring the feeding habitats for the Antillean manatee. Bibliography Acosta, C. A. & Butler IV, M. J., Role of mangrove habitat as a nursery for juvenile spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, in Belize. Marine and Freshwater Research, 48(8), pp Acosta, C. A. & Robertson, D. N., Comparative Spatial Ecology of Fished Spined lobster (Panulirus argus) and an Unfished Coneger P. guttatus in an isolated Marine Reserve at Glovers's Reef Atoll, Belize. Coral Reefs, 22, pp Acosta, C. A Benthic dispersal of Caribbean spiny lobsters among insular habitats: Implications for the conservation of exploited marine species. Conservation Biology, 13(3), pp Acosta, C., Field Protocol for Monitoring Coral Reef Fisheries Resources in Belize, Dangriga: Wildlife Conservation Society. Aguilar-Perera, A., Disappearance of a Nassau grouper spawning aggregation off the southern Mexican Caribbean coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 327, pp Aiken, K.A., Kong, G.A., Smikle, S., Mahon, R. and Appeldoorn, R., The queen conch fishery on Pedro Bank, Jamaica: discovery, development, management. Ocean and Coastal Management, 42, pp Aketa, K. & Kawamura, A., Digestive functions of Sirenians (Review). Bulletin of the Faculty of Bioresources-Mie University (Japan), 27, pp

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69 Appendices Fish Species List Angelfish - Pomacanthidae Blue Angelfish French Angelfish Grey Angelfish Queen Angelfish Rock Beauty Holacanthus bermudensis Pomacanthus paru Pomacanthus arcuatus Holacanthus ciliaris Holacanthus tricolor Butterflyfish - Chaetodontidea Banded Butterflyfish Foureye Butterflyfish Chaetodon striatus Chaetodon capistratus Longsnout Butterflyfish Prognathodes aculeatus Reef Butterflyfish Spotfin Butterflyfish Chaetodon sedentarius Chaetodon ocellatus Surgeonfish - Acanthuridae Blue Tang Doctorfish Ocean Surgeonfish Acanthurus coeruleus Acanthurus chirurgus Acanthurus tractus Jacks - Carangidae Bar Jack Permit Caranx ruber Trachinotus falcatus 69

70 Grunts Haemulidae Black Margate Bluestriped grunt Caesar Grunt Cottonwick French Grunt Porkfish Sailors Choice Smallmouth Grunt Spanish Grunt Striped Grunt Tomtate White Grunt White Margate Anisotremus surinamensis Haemulon sciurus Haemulon carbonarium Haemulon melanurum Haemulon flavolineatum Anisotremus virginicus Haemulon parra Haemulon chrysargyreum Haemulon macrostomatum Haemulon striatum Haemulon aurolineatum Haemulon plumierii Haemulon album Snappers - Lutjanidae Cubera Snapper Dog Snapper Gray Snapper Lane Snapper Mahogany Snapper Mutton Snapper Red Snapper Schoolmaster Yellowtail Snapper 70 Lutjanus cyanopterus Lutjanus jocu Lutjanus griseus Lutjanus synagris Lutjanus mahogoni Lutjanus analis Lutjanus campechanus Lutjanus apodus Ocyurus chrysurus

71 Groupers - Serranidae Black Grouper Coney Goliath Grouper Graysby Nassau Grouper Red Grouper Red Hind Rock Hind Tiger Grouper Yellowfin Grouper Mycteroperca bonaci Epinephelus fulvus Epinephelus itajara Cephalopholis cruentata, Epinephelus striatus Epinephelus morio Epinephelus guttatus Epinephelus adscensionis Mycteroperca tigris Mycteroperca venenosa Yellowmouth Grouper Mycteroperca interstitialis Parrotfish - Scaridae Blue Parrotfish Greenblotch Parrotfish Scarus coeruleus Sparisoma atomarium Midnight Parrotfish Princess Parrotfish Queen Parrotfish Rainbow Parrotfish Redband Parrotfish Redtail Parrotfish 71 Scarus coelestinus Scarus taeniopterus Scarus vetula Scarus guacamaia Sparisoma aurofrenatum Sparisome chrysopterum

72 Stoplight Parrotfish Striped Parrotfish Sparisoma viride Scarus iseri Yellowtail Parrotfish Sparisoma rubripinne Trunkfish - Ostraciidae Spotted Trunkfish Lactophrys bicaudalis Triggerfish & Filefish - Balistidae Black Durgon Ocean Triggerfish Melicthys niger Canthidermis sufflamen Orangespotted Filefish Cantherhines pullus Queen Triggerfish Scrawled Filefish Balistes vetula Aluterus scriptus Whitespotted Filefish Cantherhines macrocerus Miscellaneous Chub Great Barracuda Hogfish Lionfish Spanish Hogfish Kyphosus sectatrix/incisor Sphyraena barracuda Lachnolaimus maximus Pterois volitans Bodianus rufus Yellowtail Damselfish Microspathodon chrysurus Juveniles and Recruits Fish Species List Damselfish (<3.5cm) Bicolor Damselfish 72 Stegastes partitus

73 Blue Chromis Brown Chromis Cocoa Damselfish Dusky Damselfish Chromis cyanea Chromis multilineata Stegastes variabilis Stegastes adustus Longfin Damselfish Stegastes diencaues Threespot Damselfish Stegastes planifrons Surgeonfish (<5cm) Blue Tang Ocean Surgeonfish Acanthurus coeruleus Acanthurus tractus Butterflyfish (<2.5cm) Banded Butterflyfish Foureye Butterflyfish Chaetodon striatus Chaetodon capistratus Parrotfish Greenblotch Parrotfish Sparisoma atomarium Princess Parrotfish Redband Parrotfish Stoplight Parrotfish Striped Parrotfish Scarus taeniopterus Sparisoma aurofrenatum Sparisoma viride Scarus iseri Others (<3.5cm) Bluehead Wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatum Clown Wrasse Halichoeres maculipinna Fairy Basslet Gramma loreto Rainbow Wrasse Halichoeres pictus Slippery Dick Halichoeres bivittatus 73

74 Spanish Hogfish Bodianus rufus Yellowhead Wrasses Halichoeres garnoti Benthos species list Sponges SPN Corals Branching Fire Coral Millepora cervicornismalc Blade Fire Coral Gorgonian Staghorn Coral Millepora complanata MCOM GG Acropora cervicornis ACER Fused Staghorn Coral Acropora prolifera APRO Elkhorn Coral Acropora palmata APAL Clubtip Finger Coral Porites porites PPOR Pillar Coral Dendrogyra cylindrus DCYL Blushing Star Coral Stephanocoenia intersepta SINT Lobed Star Coral Orbicella annularis OANN Mountainous Star Coral Orbicella faveolata OFAV Great Star Coral Montastraea cavernosa MCAV Elliptical Star Coral Dichocoenia stokesi DSTO Massive Starlet Coral Siderastrea siderea SSID Lesser Starlet Coral Siderastrea radians SRAD Symmetrical Brain Coral Pseudodiploria strigosa PSTR (was Diploria sp.) Knobby Brain Coral Pseudodiploria clivosa PCLI (was Diploria sp.) Grooved Brain Coral Diploria labyrinthiformis DLAB Maze Coral Meandrina meandrites MMEA Rose Coral Mancina areolata MARE Boulder Brain Coral Colpophyllia natans CNAT 74

75 Whitestar Sheet Coral Agaricia lamarcki ALAM Lettuce Coral Undaria agaricites UAGA (was Agaricia sp.) Low Relief Lettuce Coral Undaria humilis UHUM (was Agaricia sp.) Thin Relief Lettuce Coral Undaria tenufoila UTEN (was Agaricia sp.) Ridged Cactus Coral Mycetophyllia lamarckiana MLAM Sinuous Cactus Coral Isophyllia sinuosa ISIN Spiny Flower Coral Mussa angulosa MANG Smooth Flower Coral Eusmilia fastigiata EFAS Marine algae Thalassia sp. TH Dictyota sp. DT Lobophora sp. LOB Halimeda sp. HM Blue/Green Algae Turf Algae Macro Algae Coralline Algae BGA TURF MAC COR Other Substrates Sand Bare Rock BR SN Abbreviations Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment Belize Barrier Reef Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System AGRRA BBR BBRRS 75

76 Caye Caulker CC Caye Caulker Forest Reserve CCFR Caye Caulker Marine Reserve CCMR Conservation Zone CZ Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CITES Forest and Marine Reserve Association of Caye Caulker FAMRACC General Use Zone Marine Protected Areas Mesoamerican barrier reef system North Back reef Preservation Zone Sea Surface Temperature South Back reef Synoptic Monitoring Program GUZ MPA MBRS NB PZ SST SB SMP 76

77 Manatee Data Base Name: Flash Gordon Sex: Unknown Face Right Face Centre Face Left Description: round, almost undamaged tail. Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments Aug-17 Seems undisturbed by snorkelers and happy to let them swim around. 77

78 Name: Ally Sex: Unknown Description: Possible circular scar, mid left back Face Right Face Centre Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 2011 N/A 78

79 Name: Amber Sex: Unknown Description: large abscess on right side of body Face Right Face Centre Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 79

80 Name: Ainsle Sex: Male Description: small scar, two notches on tail Face Right Face Centre Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 06/04/2018 Two notches on tail, small scar right side of centre body, black spot Friendly/curious, approached volunteer, smart, mimicked movements 80

81 Name: Keto Sex: Male Description: Tiny notches around tail Face Right Face Centre Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 06/04/2018 Tiny notches on tail, golden algae on tail, tiny white mark upper left body. Possibly Rowan 81

82 Name: Rowan Sex: Male Description: Heavily wrinkled nose under eye Face Right Face Centre Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 3 spots on left back, heavily covered in golden algae. 82

83 Name: Charlie Sex: Male Description: cut half way up left side tail, Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 17/07/2017 Seemed curious and happy to swim with tourists, circled them several times 83

84 Name: Macbeth Sex: Male Description: two barnacles, two barnacles Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments 06/04/2018 Two white barnacles on back, dark scrapings from possible sucker shark White mark on left side of tail, small notch on centre tail Dark scrapings from possible sucker shark, small notch on centre tail Shy, afraid of tourists and left, returned friendlier. Later approached Dagney, needs to build trust with manatee. Indicates older Followed the young male 84

85 Name: Mr. Mole Sex: Male Description: frilled tail from boat, smooth body Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments Often North Channel Not afraid of tourists, often found in tourist s pictures dated back to

86 Name: Sophie Sex: Female Description: round tail with small nicks on Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting 2016 Comments Small nicks on tail a few centimetres long, Seen from North Channel to Hol Chan 86

87 Name: Grundy Sex: Male Description: two cuts on tail, undamaged body Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments Jul-17 Not disturbed by tourists, paid no particular interest 87

88 Name: Lana Sex: Female Description: Heavily scarred tail from engine Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments Jul-17 Happily kept swimming when tourists approached the manatee 88

89 Name: Olivia Sex: Female Description: two nicks on tail, one central, one to the left Face Right Face Center Face Left Right Side Left Side Tail Sighting Comments Did not react to large tourists group. Last seen North Channel on August 2nd 89