Establish plants outdoors

Transcription

1 Establish plants outdoors Note: This section is in two parts Establish plants in soil CONTENTS Part 2 Page Number Introduction...2 Tree planting Trees...4 Transporting...5 Planting...5 Shrubs...5 Aftercare...5 Turf...6 Grass seed...7 Protection...7 Aftercare...7 Grass identification

2 PART 2 Establishing plants in soil Introduction Once the area chosen for planting has been correctly prepared then the task of planting and establishing the desired plants may commence. On the golf course the most frequently used plants, other than grass, are trees and shrubs and care should be taken when handling and transporting them to avoid damage. The plants should be obtained from reputable suppliers to ensure that they are healthy and in the best possible condition to ensure speedy establishment. The plants may be purchased at varying stages of growth and are usually containerised but care must be taken to ensure that the plants are not pot bound. Containerised plants generally are able to establish better as the roots are not broken when transplanting. In general the younger trees are quicker to establish but larger trees provide a more immediate effect. Trees may be bought, in ascending size, as transplants, whips, standards and semi-mature and may be bare root, containerised or root-balled. When transporting plants, care has to be taken to avoid damaging top growth or roots and also avoiding stress such as wind damage, causing desiccation. Remember that when plant roots are exposed to the air the fine roots and root hairs will immediately start to dry out. Page 2

3 Tree planting When planting individual trees, it is desirable to excavate a hole deep enough to plant the tree to the depth obvious on the stem/trunk and large enough to accommodate the roots. The base of the pit should be forked over to encourage the tree roots to explore beyond the pit. At this stage it may be appropriate to work in compost or manure to the base. The tree will need support in the early stages of establishment to ensure that wind does not disturb the tree roots by rocking the plant. There are many methods of supporting a tree but all have the same objective. Currently the most popular method is to have a short stake to which the trunk is fixed (See Figs 1 and 2), but stakes at an angle or two stakes are sometimes used. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Page 3

4 The stakes should be placed carefully on the windward side of the tree in a position where root damage will be avoided, and driven into the base of the hole. The tree should then be carefully placed into the hole and the soil replaced in stages around the roots, firming taking place at each stage to remove any air pockets. The hole should be filled up to the existing soil level on the tree and no further. An area around the tree should be kept clear of vegetation to remove competition and aid establishment unlike the tree in figure 3. It is also wise to protect trees from damage by animals using the method shown in Figures 1 and 2 while larger animals such as deer and rabbits need more drastic measures (See Fig. 4) Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Trees may be bought as: Transplants smallest, usually bare root and may be planted easily. Aftercare is more critical as it will be necessary to control competing growth. Whips are slightly larger than the transplants and may have been transplanted more than once but similar treatment is necessary. Standards are larger still and may need a pit prepared to accommodate the roots. Semi-mature largest with root-balls for immediate effect but need to be watered to aid establishment. Strong supports are required for these trees. The smaller trees will need protection from animals and support while they are establishing. When purchasing trees it is important to ensure that there is a healthy root system with no damaged parts. It is also desirable that the top growth is healthy, undamaged and free from disease. Trees should be planted in the dormant season generally between autumn and spring but container grown plants can be planted at any time provided they are kept watered. Page 4

5 Transporting It is important that no damage occurs to plants during transport. When plants are taken over longer distances, care should be taken to prevent drying out or stress by ensuring that they are protected from wind damage. Planting Whether planting container grown or bare root trees it is important to ensure that the hole is larger than the root spread. It may be necessary to tease out roots carefully from the root ball before planting container grown stock in order to encourage the spread of roots in to the soil. When planting the tree it is important not to plant below the existing soil mark on the trunk. Soil should be evenly firmed around the roots to ensure that there are no voids. This must be done carefully to avoid damaging the roots. Shrubs Shrubs can be purchased at various stages of growth but these are generally containerised. The same treatment is required for shrubs as for trees i.e. a suitable large hole in which to plant avoiding damage to roots and top growth. Any weak diseased or damaged roots or branches should be pruned back to a healthy stage before planting. Aftercare With trees and shrubs it is important to ensure that no vegetation encroaches around the base, as there would be competition for water. Irrigation may be necessary to ensure that the roots become established and the plant continues to grow. This is especially important with larger trees, which may need water for some considerable time after planting. Any ties, supports or protection should be checked regularly to ensure that there is no damage. Page 5

6 Turf When preparing soils or growing media for turf it is particularly important that attention is paid to evenly firming the surface. Turf is generally a permanent surface and it is easier to obtain the desired levels before the turf is established. The tilth for turf need not be quite as fine as it is for grass seed but it should be fairly fine to aid establishment. The quality of turf should be examined before purchase to ensure that: - It is weed free. Contains the desired grasses. There is no disease. There is no excessive thatch. Turf is often supplied in large rolls, purpose grown and harvested by machine. This means that there are fewer joints when it is laid. Other turf is supplied in metre strips which are easier to handle but more laborious to lay. With turf, it is important that it is not stored for any length of time in the roll otherwise the turf will discolour and begin to rot. Ideally it should be laid the day it arrives. When laying the smaller rolls, it is important that the joints are staggered to remove lines as far as possible. Each section of turf should be closely butted to the next one to encourage knitting together. The turf should be laid from boards placed on previously laid turf so that the soil surface is not disturbed during the laying process. It also allows turf to be firmed down into place. When handling turf ensure that it is held securely to avoid tearing or stretching. On completion of laying, the turf should be lightly rolled to firm the underside into contact with the soil surface before top dressing to improve surface levels and to fill the joints to hinder drying out after laying. In dry weather irrigation will be required to prevent turf drying out and shrinking. In general turfing may be completed at any time but the preferred season is between September and March when the soil is naturally more moist. On areas of high maintenance such as greens the earlier the better during that period to allow for establishment and surface improvement before the surface is used. Page 6

7 Grass seed The soil into which grass seed is to be sown should undergo the same preparation as for turf but the tilth needs to be slightly finer. This is done to ensure that the very small seeds of grass can be in contact with the soil particles to absorb moisture. Grass seed should be sown evenly by broadcasting by hand or using a spreader. Ideally it should be done in two directions to ensure an even spread. In order to ensure viability it is desirable to store grass seed for no more than a year in a cool dry place clear of vermin. Germination begins to fall off sharply after a year and greater seed rates have to be used. The normal rate for sowing grass seed for turf is g/m 2 but is much less for small seeds such a bent grass 8-12g/m 2. Immediately following sowing, the seedbed should be lightly raked to ensure that the seed is buried. The seedbed may also be lightly rolled to firm the seed in contact with the soil before irrigating to moisten the soil. It is important to keep the surface moist during germination. Sowing of grass seed, to establish turf preferably should be done in the early autumn when there are fewer weeds to compete and natural rainfall will exceed evapo-transpiration. Protection For turfed or seeded areas the main protection is to ensure that there is no traffic over the area until it is established. It could be said that establishment has occurred when the turf is firmly rooted and top-dressings have been applied and with seed when it is getting ready for the first cut. Aids to the establishment of seed, are mats which can be used to protect the newly seeded area from birds and to reduce moisture loss by evaporation. Aftercare As the seeded area grows, any perennial weeds that appear may be carefully hand weeded (Damage may result from the use of chemicals on young grass). The area may be rolled to firm the grass roots into the soil when the grass reaches 3 4cm high. The first cut should be carried out with a sharp rotary mower set to remove no more than half the top growth. More regular cutting can then commence. Page 7

8 Grass identification Introduction The GTC would like to thank Mr Jim Arthur for allowing the use of the following drawings from Practical Greenkeeping (2nd Edition) There is more information available on grass identification in the book Practical Greenkeeping which is available from or all leading booksellers RRP Desirable species making the best turf Bents (Agrostis) Fine fescues (Festuca rubra) Undesirable species forming poorer turf Meadow grasses (Poa spp., especially Poa annua) Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) Timothy (Phleum pratense) Weeds, or positively harmful species Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus) Early hair grass (Aira praecox) Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) Transverse section of leaf of fine fescue. Closed up, as in drought conditions. Note needle shaped cylindrical section. Similar fine fescue leaf. Opened up, as in wet weather. Transverse section of bent (Agrostis) leaf. Note uniform, fairly shallow ribbing. Page 8

9 Transverse section of Yorkshire Fog (Holcus Ianatus) leaf. Note hairs and absence of strengthening fibres. Plant of Yorkshire Fog. Note prostrate habit of growth and hairy leaves. Transverse section of annual meadow grass (Poa annua) leaf. Note marked double line of motor cells. Plant of Poa annua. Note short, stubby leaves. Far left, Tip of Poa annua leaf showing split end when flattened. Left: Boat-shaped tip of Poa, characteristics of entire genus. Page 9

10 Stem of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). Very shiny dark green backs to leaves. Shredded ends of ryegrass leaf defying all but the sharpest of mower blades. Transverse section of ryegrass leaf. Note fibrous strengthening on underside. Rhizomes (underground stems) of couch grass (Agropyron repens). Stolons (surface running stems) of creeping bent (Agrostis stolonifera). Page 10

11 Browntop Bentgrass (Agrostis tenuis) Comments Probably the most important and desirable turfgrass for the playing areas of British golf courses. Sown together with Chewings fescue for most fine turf swards for greens, collars, aprons and high-quality tees, and fairways too. A useful companion grass even where coarser grasses are sown. Browntop bent tends to dominate the fescue in most UK fine turf situations in the long term, often unfortunately with some annual meadow-grass invasion. Appearance in turf Dull green in colour, producing a fine, dense and even sward. Leaves are small but relatively broad and flat, giving good ground cover. Sward density is increased by the ability of the grass to produce lateral shoots and to spread by rhizomes or stolons. Colour can be losts in summer drought or in winter. Identification a) Leaf shape is highly characteristic. Blades taper evenly along their entire length to form a fine point. b) Leaf colour rather dull green; leaves hairless, ribbed on the upper side. c) Young leaves rolled in the shoot, not folded. d) Small papery ligule present at junction of leaf blade and sheath 0.5 to 2.0mm long. e) Auricles are not present at junction of leaf blade and sheath. Note: Highland bent is now recognised as a separate species, Agrostis castellena. It is very difficult to distinguish from A.tenuis but has larger leaves, a larger ligule, strongly developed underground runners (rhizomes) and better winter colour). Managerial features Browntop bent flourishes naturally under conditions of relative poverty so over-fertilisation must be avoided if it is to continue to dominate golf course swards, as is highly desirable. Over-feeding, over-watering and compacted or waterlogged soils tend to favour annual meadow-grass invasion at the expense of the bent. Slightly acidic soils are best. Persistent mowing at less than 5mm can weaken browntop bent swards. Rhizome showing stem elongation between shoots and adventitious roots forming at base of each shoot Inflorescence stays open throughout flowering period Ligule (shorter than that of creeping bent) Highland bent seed Page 11

12 Creeping Bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) Comments Also known as fiorin or white bent, this species is found as a native British grass, but for fine turf purposes it is much more widely used in the USA and the Mediterranean countries. However, under the influence of American golf course architects, cultivated varieties have been sown in the UK. In countries which experience hot, dry summers, creeping bent has much to commend it, but in Britain the traditional browntop bent/chewings or slender creeping red fescue seed mix gives better results for fine turf. Creeping bentgrass cultivars tend to become dormant in British winters, and playing quality suffers. Appearance in turf Very similar to browntop bent but more grey-green. Creeping bent produces creeping surface stems (stolons) in a vigorous manner which may result in a rather matted sward. Identification a) Leaf shape as described for browntop bent. Blades broadest at the base, tapering evenly along their entire length to end in a fine point. b Leaf colour is dull green, hairless, ribbed on the upper surface. c) Young leaves rolled in the shoot, not folded. d) A ligule 0.5 to 2.0mm long is present at the junction of leaf blade and sheath, but no auricles. e) Creeping bent produces very obvious surface runners (stolons). This often distinguishes it from browntop bent. Managerial features The surface runners produced by this grass tend to mat together to produce a layer of loose fibre in the base of the sward. A nap can form, affecting the run of the golf ball. Creeping bent turf must therefore be frequently scarified, verticut or groomed to maintain good playing quality and to reduce matted fibre. Prefers a more alkaline soil ph than browntop and suffers more from drought, requiring generous irrigation. Can be seriously weakened by British winters, especially in the North. Surface runner or stolon of creeping bent with vegetative shoots Mature inflorescence (flower head) showing late stage of flowering (inflorescence closes as it matures) Creeping bent seed Page 12

13 Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra ssp. commutata) Comments Highly valued as a constituent of seed mixtures for fine turf. Seed originally came from New Zealand for lawns and amenity turf, but it is also a native British plant. Usually sown to produce a 50:50 sward with browntop bent for golf greens and other fine turf areas. In long-established greens however, the bentgrass tends to dominate the grass cover. Also widespread over other areas of the golf course, particularly in seaside links, heathland and moorland situations. Appearance in turf Easily recognised by its very fine, needle- or bristle-like leaves. The grass tolerates close mowing at 5mm and blends well with browntop bent to produce a fine, uniform and attractive sward with good playing characteristics. Colour can be good all the year round, but some cultivars show seasonal variations. Identification a) Leaf blades are stiff and bristle-like and at first glance appear circular in cross-section, although on close examination (perhaps with hand-lens) they will be seen to be actually rolled with a deep groove on the upper surface. b) Young leaves are very tightly rolled in the shoot, ribbed on inner surface. c) The ligule at the junction between leaf blade and leaf sheath is extremely short and small, hardly apparent. There are no auricles. d) Leaf sheaths are a complete tube, readily splitting at the top. e) There are no rhizomes or stolons. Managerial features Tolerant of close mowing and resistant to fusarium and take-all patch diseases. Grows well in acidic soils and conditions of relative poverty it hence tends to disappear where soilss are excessively fertile. May not withstand high levels of play. Chewings fescue is quick to establish and shelters developing bentgrass in new swards. A useful companion grass for fairways and tees even if not the main constituent of the sward, and attractive when flowering in the rough. Inflorescence (flower head) Shoot or tiller of Chewings fescue. Note that the ligule is hardly apparent Seed of Chewings fescue Page 13

14 Creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra) Comments There are a number of sub-species of creeping red fescue, very difficult to identify precisely in the field. Slender creeping red fescue: F. rubra ssp. litoralis; or ssp. pruinosa, Strong creeping red fescue: F rubra ssp. rubra. For our purposes here, it is only necessary to be able to distinguish these creeping red fescues from other grasses, particularly from Chewings fescue (F.rubra ssp. commutata), which is another red fescue, but not a creeping one. Appearance in turf Extremely similar to Chewings fescue with very fine, stiff, bristle-like leaves. Slender creeping red fescue can tolerate mowing at 5mm and can blend with browntop bent to form a high quality, fine sward, as is the case with Chewings fescue. Strong creeping red fescue performs better when mown at 12mm or higher, but does not form as dense a sward as other red fescues. Identification a) Leaf blades are stiff and bristle-like and at first glance appear circular in cross-section, although on close examination they will be seen to be actually rolled with a deep groove on the upper surface. Leaves are coarser in the case of strong creeping red fescue. b) Young leaves are very tightly rolled in the shoot, ribbed on inner surface. c) The ligule at the junction between leaf blade and leaf sheath is extremely short and small, hardly apparent. There are no auricles and leaf sheaths are a complete tube which splits easily. d) Creeping underground stems (rhizomes) are present. This distinguishes the creeping red fescues from Chewings fescue the latter does not have rhizomes. Managerial features Creeping red fescues tend to be prone to attack by red thread disease, although cultivars with improved resistance have been produced. Some are also prone to dollar spot disease, particularly the variety of the grass found in sea-marsh turf. A mixture of slender creeping red fescue and Chewings fescue in a fine turf seeds mixture may combine the better features of both the creeping fescue is rather better at colonising bare patches than Chewings. Base of strong creeping red fescue showing rhizome forming at base of shoot Inflorescence (flower head) Page 14

15 Annual meadow-grass (Poa annua) Comments Britain s commonest grass species. Found almost universally in nearly all turf areas, fine and coarse. It is best regarded as an undesirable weedgrass, although it has its uses in the case of second-rate turf swards where any grass cover is better than a patchy cover of weed, moss and bare ground. Appearance in turf Often weak and yellowish coloured between autumn and the start of the growing season the following spring. Produces a profusion of silvery-white flowers commonly in fine turf mown at 5mm, e.g. golf greens. In conditions of good growth it is soft and lush, and of a bright green colour. Identification a) Like all meadow-grasses, leaf tips are boat-shaped. b) Again like other meadow-grasses, there are two parallel grooves (tram-lines) running along the mid-line of each leaf blade. c) Leaves are hairless and have a crimped appearance. d) The ligule at junction of leaf blade and sheath is prominent and about 3mm long. e) There are no auricles. f) Leaves folded not rolled in young shoots. Managerial features Unwanted weed on greens, tees and fairways. Encouraged by too much fertiliser particularly nitrogen and phosphate, and by excessive irrigation. Often associated with poor soil profiles and thatch. Prone to attack by fusarium and anthracnose diseases. Weak in winter. Tends to produce, soft, slow, easily-scarred putting surfaces. Often shallow-rooted and prone to drought damage. Annual meadow-grass in turf Young emerging closed inflorescence with leaves showing crimping. Note that the crimping on the leaf is a characteristic feature of annual meadow-grass Page 15

16 Smooth-stalked meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) Comments Known as Kentucky bluegrass in the USA, this species would be undesirable in golf green swards, but is a useful turfgrass in certain circumstances for tees and fairways. It is slow to establish from seed, but can be tough and hard-wearing if mown not lower than 20mm. Can be a useful constituent of fairway swards if sown with bents and fescues. Good modern cultivars can be fairly tolerant of mowing in the 8-10mm range, and can therefore be used in seeds mixes for teeing areas. The grass performs best in free-draining neutral soils. Appearance in turf Sometimes rather dark and blue-green with stiff leaf blades, but cultivars vary considerably in colour. Some lose colour in winter to become brown or yellow. Growth somewhat prostrate, and the grass tends to produce thatchy turf. Some cultivars are prone to leaf spot disease. Identification a) Young leaves folded not rolled in shoot. b) Leaves parallel sided with boat-shaped tips. c) Two grooves (tram-lines) running along the mid-line of each leaf blade. d) The grass has creeping underground stems (rhizomes). e) There are no auricles at the junction between leaf blade and sheath. f) The ligule is present but very short, 1 to 2mm long. (Note: This grass and annual meadow-grass are both members of the Poa family and can be confused both have tram-lines and boat-shaped leaf tips. Smooth-stalked meadow-grass is however stiffer and darker green, ligules are shorter and rhizomes are present. It does not flower as profusely in regularly mown turf.) Managerial features The grass can be a useful component of tee and fairway swards but requires careful management if it is to survive long-term. Moderate levels of nitrogen fertiliser are required and cutting heights must not be excessively close. Scarification may be regularly required to control thatch formation. Well-drained soils are an advantage. Smooth-stalked meadow-grass seed Open inflorescence (flower head) Shoot with rhizome (creeping habit) Right: Upper surface of leaf blade showing tram-lines Page 16

17 Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) Comments The most valuable coarse turf species for soccer and rugby pitches, etc., also much esteemed as an agricultural fodder plant. Natural and agricultural varieties and very coarse and can form unsightly tussocks on golf fairways, tees, green surrounds, etc. Much finer and low-growing amenity cultivars have however been produced in recent years. Generally regarded as a weedgrass on golf courses, but newer improved cultivars have a place in circumstances where light wear resistance is required par 3 tees, tees in difficult situations, tees on heavily used municipal courses, etc. Can form coarse patches on greens and here it is definately a weedgrass. Appearance in turf Tough, shiny and dark green. Forms unsightly patches in golf greens, with leaf blades raggedly chewed by cylinder mowers which are not perfectly set. Amenity cultivars can however produce attractive swards, e.g. on tees mown frequently at 12mm or above. Often produces coarse tussocks on less-intensively managed parts of the golf course, and produces wiry flower-heads, particularly in dry weather, which are difficult to mow off. Identification a) Leaf blades parallel-sided, ribbed on upper side, very shiny on lower surface, and hairless. b) Base of shoot near roots dark red or purple-red. c) Young leaves folded (not rolled) in shoot. d) Ligule membranous, up to 2mm long. e) Auricles present at junction of leaf blade and sheath. Managerial features An undesirable weedgrass in most golf course situations certainly on seaside links, heathland and moorland courses. Can be weakened in fine turf by frequent scarifying, verticutting and grooming. Ugly tussocks on surrounds, etc. can be removed by turf plugger. Improved cultivars sown on heavily used tees on parkland courses require frequent mowing at 12mm or above, and good nutrient levels. Inflorescence (flower head), closed and open Ligules and auricles at base of leaf blades (note strong venation in leaf) Perennial ryegrass seed Page 17

18 Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) Comments A very common perennial weedgrass, occurring widely on all parts of the golf course from putting surfaces to unmown rough. It can be an attractive native species in parts of the course conserved as natural resources for ecological purposes, but has no value as a turfgrass for playing surfaces and is never deliberately sown. Appearance in turf As a weedgrass in greens and other close mown areas, the grass appears as light grey-green patches, coarser in appearance than the desirable bents and fescues. In putting surfaces, it is often confined to the back and sides of the green where play, and hence foot traffic, is less concentrated. It often looks unsightly as its greyish colour is in obvious contrast to the other, greener grasses and it hence gives the turf a patchy appearance. Identification a) Leaves are grey-green, soft, hairy and downy. b) There are often purple or pink vein lines along leaf-sheath bases. c) Younger leaves are rolled not folded in the shoot. d) A membranous ligule 1 to 4mm long is present at the junction of leaf blade and sheath. e) There are no auricles at the junction between leaf blade and sheath. Managerial features When the grass occurs as an unwanted weed in fine turf it can be weakened and gradually reduced by repeated scarafication, verticutting or grooming even crisscross slashing with a sharp knife in the case of a few isolated patches. Alternatively, remove small patches with hole-cutter or turf plugging tool. Scarification will also weaken the grass in fairways, although here it is seldom a real problem. In the rough, the grass can be very attractive when flowering, its feathery purplegrey flower-heads giving a misty appearance. Left unchecked, it can however dominate wild flowers and other grasses and may require control by occasional mowing or scarification. Yorkshire fog in fine turf and shoot showing purple lines. Shoots are hairy Inflorescence (flower head) Page 18

19 Timothy (Phleum pretense) Comments There are actually two sub-species of timothy the large-leaved Phleum pratense an the smallleaved Phleum pratense ssp. bertolonii but it is not easy nor really necessary to distinguish between the two. Timothy is a perennial native grass, much used for agricultural grazing and amenity cultivars have been produced for sports turf, winter games pitches in particular. It has very little or not value for golf playing surfaces, but is a common native species in the rough or unmown areas, particularly on parkland courses. Appearance in turf Unlikely to be found in the close-mown turf of golf greens, etc., but occasional plants may be found in fairways, tee banks, semi-rough, etc., particularly in the parkland situation. The odd selfseeded plant may stand out because of its dull grey-green colour. On infrequently-mown or unmown areas of the course, the plant will develop fully and flower in the growing season, producing the easily-recognised inflorescences, shaped like a short cat s tail. Identification a) Leaves dull yellow-green, hairless, with some ribbing on upper surface, quite often twisting between base and tip. b) A membraneous ligule up to 6mm long may be found at the junction of leaf blade and sheath, but no auricles. c) Shoots can form a swollen bulb at the base, next to the roots. d) The plant does not produce rhizomes or stolons. Managerial features Timothy establishes easily, has no disease problems, and tolerates wet and heavy soils. Persistent mowing at 20mm or less may not be tolerated, although some cultivars have been produced which can withstand closer mowing. Such considerations however are only of marginal interest to the golf greenkeeper. May dominate unmown areas and require control during sound ecological management. Inflorescence (flower head) Long ligule at junction between leaf blade and shoot Page 19

20 Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) Comments A very common coarse grass of waysides, meadows and pastures, useful to the former but of no value as an amenity turfgrass. The grass does not withstand frequent close mowing, but can commonly be found in the rough and unmown areas of the golf course, particularly in parkland situations. Appearance in turf Will only be found in areas where mowing is at high levels or relatively infrequent. The plant produces very coarse, dense, vigorous, tussocks scalped down to tough bases by flail or rotary mowing equipment if occasionally mown. If unmown, the grass has inflorescences resembling a cockerel s foot, hence the name. Identification a) Leaves have boat-shaped tips (like the meadow-grasses), but there are no tram-lines along the leaf blade, just a single groove. b) Young leaves very obviously folded, not rolled, with a prominent keel. c) A large membraneous ligule is present a the junction of leaf blade and sheath (up to 12mm long), but no auricles. Managerial features The species is not a turfgrass and managerial considerations relating to the maintenance of golf course playing surfaces therefore do not apply. However, on parts of the course which do not come into play and where ecological considerations may be important, it may be necessary to try and control cocksfoot by occasional mowing to prevent it dominating other more desirable plants. The grass can be very aggressive, smothering wild flowers and other species which one might wish to preserve and encourage. Inflorescence (flower head) Vegetative shoots, folded and keeled Page 20