SWIMMING IN AUSTRALIA September-October 2004

Transcription

1 SWIMMING IN AUSTRALIA September-October 2004 TALENT IDENTIFICATION & DEVELOPMENT By Dr R. Richards Presented at 1999 ASCTA Convention INTRODUCTION Many great coaches are discovered once they have uncovered a talented swimmer. 1 Whilst the goal of every coach is to improve the performance capability of his/her swimmers, the innate ability of each swimmer to adapt and respond to the training program will greatly influence the end results. Therefore, every coach should seek out those athletes with the greatest potential to succeed. 2 What can the coach do? TALENT IDENTIFICATION OF FACTORS Much of what we consider to be talent is actually the degree to which each swimmer possesses certain physical, physiological, or mental attributes that may contribute to performance. Many of the physical characteristics of the swimmer are controlled by his/her genetic profile; that is, they are beyond anything the coach may do in the training program to change these characteristics. The mature height of a swimmer and other anatomical characteristics (these are commonly known as one s somatotype) are not easily altered. 3 Therefore, many TID 4 systems have focused on anthropometric variables. Studies of elite swimmers have been used to identify what general physical characteristics are common to successful (versus their less successful peers) swimming athletes. 5 The general premise is that a swimmer s morphology influences the horizontal components of lift and drag and thereby affects the potential to generate optimal propulsion and to minimise resistance forces. The typical profile of elite swimmers features these general characteristics Tall (i.e. greater than average height) Wide shoulder girdle and narrow hip width (Note: Wide and narrow are relative terms, the respective ratio will determine if the relationship is favourable.) Long arms (Note: The arm-span taken from the extremities of the outstretched arms should be equal to, or greater than, one s standing height.) Favourable ratio of long-bone development in the legs (Note: This means that the leg-length is greater than trunk length.) Large hands and feet There are also some inter-stroke variations that have been reported in the literature. For example, male Breaststrokers tend to be slightly heavier in their body build and larger feet. Freestylers and Backstrokers tend to be the tallest and have the longest legs (i.e. relative to body size). However, the overall differences between elite swimmers in the various strokes are usually less than the differences between elite and non-elite swimmers. Body composition also appears to be a good descriptive characteristic of elite swimmers. As a rule, elite swimmers tend to have ectomorphic body types. That is, they are relatively lean (i.e. a low percentage of body mass is carried as fat tissue) when compared to the endomorphic body type. Muscularity would be described as lean muscled rather than the heavy muscled mesomorphic body type. The body shape is typically narrow and wide at the shoulder, tapering to a narrow waist (i.e. the torso tapers in a V-shape as viewed from the front). The amount of body fat is one factor that may be controlled. To a large extent, one s body fat can be reduced through good nutrition practices and adequate aerobic training loads. Muscularity is also subject to the type and amount of exercise performed. However, ectomorphs tend to retain a lean muscular appearance without developing excessive muscle bulk. A second group of factors are related to one s neuro-muscular control these are much harder to measure but are no less obvious than more physical characteristics. Experienced coaches can easily recognise that some swimmers have a better feel for the water than others. This is evidence of the differences in the ability of individuals to sense pressure on the propulsive surfaces of the arms and legs. Talented swimmers are the ones who are quick to make adjustments to their 1 Paraphrased from coaching myth (no known author). 2 This does not mean that Talent Identification factors should ever be the sole criteria when decisions are made regarding the time and effort a coach invests in a swimmer. 3 There is some scientific evidence to suggest that physical training (in the years before and during biological maturity) may in some way shape the course of this development. 4 TID will refer to any systematic selection procedure, i.e. Talent Identification. 5 Carter, L. and Ackland, T. Kinanthropometry in Aquatic Sports: A Study of World Class Athletes HK Sport Science Monograph Series, Volume 5 Human Kinetic Publishers, 1994.

2 movement patterns to continually maximise the fluid pressure applied. Swimming is a sport that relies upon feel (i.e. tactile sense) more than sight, sound, etc. The quality of sensory input also affects the swimmer s ability to maintain a body position that reduces drag. Finally, a talented swimmer will possess a great sense of balance and body awareness in the water. The physiological characteristics that are advantageous in swimming will depend upon the type of event a swimmer intends to pursue (i.e. distance or sprint). Physiological factors are more susceptible to change as a result of the type and volume of training. Therefore, only the extremes on the physiological spectrum of endurance explosive-power variables may be a useful guide to talent identification. In recent years Bill Sweetenham (Australian Swimming Inc., National Youth Coach) has advocated the use of recovery ability as a measure of physiological talent identification. Both sprint and endurance athletes will have a certain ability to absorb and recover from physical activity to a point where they can repeat the activity. This is one s ability to recover. Last, but by no means least, are the characteristics associated with one s psychological makeup. Like the technical aspects of performance, these characteristics are sometimes hard to assess by traditional methods (i.e. standard tests). Research has not clearly identified individual characteristics, but there are general traits that are worth considering when putting together a TID protocol. In general, successful swimmers have a well-balanced sense of self. That is, they have a healthy self-concept and belief in their own ability. They are usually the type of person who displays great determination and concentration to stay with a task to completion. MODELS FOR TID In Australia there have been several TID models trialled on a mass scale. Some individual sports, such as rowing, have been successful in recent years. However, a sport such as rowing will identify potential elite competitors at a rather advanced stage of physical development (i.e. typically years of age). Because swimming is a highly technical movement sport the development of skilled swimming technique must begin at a much younger age. 6 Other TID schemes, such as Talent Search (a Sports Commission program administered in schools across Australia) are too generic in nature. They fail to identify specific skill components associated with swimming. The work of Bill Sweetenham, David Pyne, and Bill Nelson at the Australian Institute of Sport in the late 1980 s produced a sport specific application of TID characteristics. 7 The problem with implementing such a model is that without the proper sport infrastructure (i.e. support at several organisational levels) it s impossible to test on a wide enough basis. Infrastructure also means that involvement from the Learn-to-Swim segment of the aquatics industry is paramount to a successful TID program. This would require a very large commitment; with no guarantee of a significant return (i.e. there is no way of knowing if additional talented swimming athletes could be supported through their development to elite level). Many factors influence the relative success of a TID program, these include The ability to identify potential athletes at an early age (perhaps at years of age) The ability to anticipate physical growth and development The ability to guarantee a positive support structure (i.e. from parents, peers, coaches, etc.) The ability to isolate the potential athlete s interest to the sport of swimming (remember that a talented swimmer may also be a talented runner or netballer) The ability to provide a quality coaching environment (i.e. for example, if a potential swimmer lives 100km from the nearest swimming pool there is a real problem!) It has been said that, The best form of TID is mass participation. 8 The best way to identify talent is to have large numbers of young children exposed to quality Learn-to-Swim programs and then to keep them in the sport during the age-group years. This recognises that talented athletes will mature at different rates and some will be found as 13-year-olds and others will be discovered as 16 or 17-year-olds. Much of the success of TID in Australia relies on the educatedeye of the Swimming Coach. However, the educated-eye must act in consort with the professional knowledge of the coach with regard to Talent Development. A coach s understanding of how swimmers develop and progress during their sporting lifetime is the cornerstone of talent development. TALENT DEVELOPMENT 6 See comments on Talent Development. 7 A copy of the original TID model is reprinted in the Appendix. 8 This view has been expressed by Bill Sweetenham and others.

3 There are numerous papers that have outlined the progression of sporting development (see references: Balyi, Touretski, Portier, and others). All models for sporting development must also embrace the principles of human growth and development (see Cahill & Pearl). It s important for the coach to understand what children are capable of achieving and what aspects of their sporting development are most sensitive to change during certain periods of physical growth and development. The coach should also be aware that certain skills and physiological capacities interact with other factors at later stages of development. For example, stroke technique development during the early stages of training will affect the ability to swim efficiently or make stroke modifications during later stages of training. Physiological capacities, such as aerobic endurance, develop quite rapidly during the pre-pubertal stage of growth this is a critical period of development. Other capacities, such as the rapid increase in muscle strength and power, require the attainment of a certain level of biological maturity before the full effects of training can be realised. It s also true that every child will mature at a slightly different rate. Research on populations gives us normative information on the likely chronological age at which certain biological markers are reached. Two 10-year-old swimmers for example, may be 1-2 years apart in their biological ages. Research has also suggested that physical training itself impacts on some aspects of biological maturation (see Richards, also Borer). These points are made to emphasise the fact that variation between individuals must always be recognised by the coach when planning a training program. How then should a coach establish realistic training objectives and progressions for an Age Group program? THE AGE-GROUP TRAINING MODEL We can first consider training as a function of age. A Multi-Year Age Group Swimmer Development Model helps us to identify important considerations (e.g. biological maturity, progressive skill development, emotional and social maturity, etc.). An Age Group swimming program should target objectives that are compatible with swimmer s readiness and ability to achieve. The age of swimmers who would typically participate in training activities within a period should not be taken as absolute. Swimmers may be ready for a specific level of training who are younger or older. To achieve the objectives within each training period will take approximately two or more years of progressive training (i.e. increase in training stimuli from one season or cycle to the next). Therefore, the coach should have a plan or vision of how training will progress over the next two years. Squad organisation and the application of training methods should reflect appropriate objectives. In addition, the coach should monitor the progress of individual swimmers to determine if adaptation to the current training stimuli is occurring. For example, a late maturing (i.e. slower than average biological development) 12-year-old girl might best fit into the training plans developed for a group of mostly year-olds. Conversely, the 12-year-old girl who has completed her growth spurt and passed the age of menarche may be capable of meeting the training expectations of a more advanced training period. Individual swimmers may have mastered some of the objectives of the next training period; however, until they have mastered all (or nearly all) the objectives of their current training period they are not ready to undertake (on a regular basis) more advanced training programs. The coach must exercise considerable judgment in planning the long-term development of individual swimmers. Three important concepts should be incorporated into the coach s planning. First, different training periods should have different emphasis in terms of training and developmental objectives. Second, it s of paramount importance that both mastery and retention of lower level skills and fitness components are carried forward to the next training period. Swimmers must be able to maintain basic skills and fitness components (or quickly re-acquire these after a period of reduced training) before more advanced training methods/objectives are imposed. Third, training plans should be progressive (i.e. advancing in a logical manner) in their application. A general guideline for most types of training is that volume is increased first (within the limits of a swimmer s ability to adapt) then frequency of training is increased (again within the limits of adaptation) then intensity of training is increased (again, to the degree which the training can be absorbed). Another way of looking at the development model is to think of a swimming career as three distinct phases. First, all swimmers must learn to train effectively. This involves the technical mastery of basic skills, but this concept may be extended to include every component of performance. Second, most swimmers will progress within a system that begins to shift the focus from background training to specific competition training. Third, swimmers with the ability to

4 successfully adapt to the first two phases will progress into a third phase of performance training. Phases of Swimmer Development TRAINING TO ACHIEVE THESE OUTCOMES COMPONENTS TRAINING PHASE COMPETITION PHASE Overall Training Objective Associated Stage of Physical Maturity Movement Skill Development Technical Model Knowledge Sportsmanship Personal Interactions Nutrition Aerobic Conditioning Anaerobic Conditioning Muscular Strength Flexibility and Range of Movement Recovery and Regeneration Emotional & Psychological Development Medical Control (monitoring) Learning the Basic Training Fundamentals Prepubescent and Early Puberty Learn Fundamental Movement Skills Acquire Basic Skills in all Four Strokes How To all Strokes, Starts, Turns, etc. Respect for Teammates and Coaches Work with Coach and Teammates Understand Principles of Good Nutrition Acquire Training Background Maintain Stroke Technique During Sprints Core Body Strength and Muscle Control Learn Swim Technique with Range of Motion Understand the Role of Recovery Enjoy Swimming Experiences Check Growth, Posture & Structural Development Progressive Build-up (volume then intensity) Pubescent and Post- Pubescent Master All Skills at Race Pace/Pressure Advanced Skill Level in all Four Strokes Race Tactics & Pacing Strategies Respect for other Competitors & Officials Support Club & Teammates Use Best Practice and Monitor Eating Habits Increase Volume and Intensity of Training Increase Volume and Intensity of Training Increase Strength Balanced Development Maintain/Increase Joint Flexibility & Stability Apply a Variety of Recovery Methods Control Mental State during Competition Apply Injury Prevention Strategies PERFORMANCE PHASE Systematic High Level Training Physical Maturity Consistent Skill Application at All Times Maintain General Skills and Specialise Performance Analysis Strengths & Weakness Respect for the Sport (media, public, etc.) Demonstrate Leadership Maintain Body Weight and Health Maintain/Improve Aerobic Fitness Level Increase Quality of Training Develop Specific Strength & Power Combine all Elements of Muscle/Joint Action Develop Individual Recovery Routine Develop Mental Skills to Meet any Situation Check Health Status & Apply Rehab Technique (Adapted from A Plan Behind the Dream, Vern Gambetta, ASCTA Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1)

5 SWIMMING IN AUSTRALIA September-October 2004 AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING INC. MULTI-YEAR AGE-GROUP SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT MODEL AGE 8 ± 1 year 10 ± 2 years Girls 12/Boys 13 ± 1 year 14 ± 2 years TRAINING PERIOD 2 years 2 years 2-3 years 3-5 years TRAINING POOL LAND POOL LAND POOL LAND POOL LAND TIME PER 2-4 Sessions 1-2 Sessions 3-5 Sessions 2 Sessions 4-6 Sessions 2-3 Sessions Sessions Sessions WEEK 40min-1hr 15-25min 1-1¼ hr 20-30min 1¼ -1½ hr 30-45min 1½ -2hr 45min-1hr VOLUME/SESS km 2-3.5km 3.5-6km * 4-8km * ION YEARLY Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks TRAINING VOLUME (POOL) km km kms kms TRAINING OBJECTIVES Technique all strokes Racing Skills starts, turns, pace Aerobic Endurance Sculling Drills Speed at 25-50m Simple Training Sets and Games Flexibility General Body Strength Movement coordination Group Activities Technique Racing Skills Aerobic Endurance Speed (<50m) & Acceleration Greater mix of Training Methods Increase Strength to Body Weight Ratio Even Development of all muscle groups Flexibility Improve core body strength Technique Increased Volume Racing Skills Speed (<50m) & Acceleration Introduce some Intense Interval Training Musculo- Skeletal Assessment Body Weight Exercises & Simple Gym Equipment Flexibility & Body Strength Increase Volume and Intensity of Training Integrated Training Model Begin to Specialist Perfect Technique & Skills Periodise Strength Program Transfer Power into Swimming Performance Cross Training Activities Maintain Flexibility

6 AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING INC. MULTI-YEAR AGE-GROUP SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT MODEL AGE 8 ± 1 year 10 ± 2 years Girls 12/Boys 13 ± 1 year 14 ± 2 years 1. Develop a feel for the 1. Improve stroke technique 1. Maintain efficient water, the ability to make and learn race skills technique as body corrections in movement (such as turns, starts, proportions change. patterns. pacing and acceleration). 2. Accommodate increases 2. Learn the technical skills 2. Consolidate stroke in muscle strength to of all four strokes. development. improve swimming 3. Develop general body 3. Improve conditioning efficiency. coordination and components of endurance 3. Retain diversity of strength. and speed while performance goals 4. Learn good habits for maintaining stroke (compete in various maintaining and technique. stroke events and improving natural 4. Develop simple race distances). flexibility. strategy and tactics. 4. Improve body steady pace 5. Learn to maintain correct and sprint performance technique on longer using ideal stroke (submaximal) swims. technique (all strokes). 6. Learn to maintain correct technique on short sprints. performance. MOTOR LEARNING OBJECTIVES KNOWLEDGE & ATTITUDES 1. Enjoyment of pool and land based activities. 2. Learn to function as an individual within a group activity. 3. Become familiar with rules and competitive situations. 4. Learn about stroke technique and training methods. 1. Enjoyment of pool and land based activities. 2. Become part of the club, team, squad culture. 3. Develop habits which support an active, healthy lifestyle. 4. Begin to function with less direct supervision and make positive decisions regarding training compliance. 1. Enjoyment of swimming activities and desire for personal improvement. 2. Broader knowledge of training methods and the resulting performance outcomes. 3. Improved personal management skills (balancing training, school and social objectives). 4. Develop self-discipline and increasing commitment to swimming 1. Adapt to diverse training methods. 2. Refine stroke technique during all speeds and intensity of swimming. 3. Apply strength and power to swimming performance. 4. Specialise in strokes and competition distances. 5. Retain range of motion and muscular coordination at all swimming speeds. 6. Refine race skills (starts and turns, tactics, pace, etc. 7. Learn to taper for peak 1. Enjoyment of the process (i.e. goal setting) and product (i.e. attainment of results) of sports participation. 2. Understanding and practicing performance management skills (such as good nutrition, recovery techniques, mental skills, etc.) 3. Independence (i.e. working with a coach and support personnel, but taking responsibility for self). 4. Improved personal skills (including education and vocational objectives).

7 AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING INC. MULTI-YEAR AGE-GROUP SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT MODEL AGE 8 ± 1 year 10 ± 2 years Girls 12/Boys 13 ± 1 year 14 ± 2 years Have fun and learn to Club level competitions Club and State level participate without anxiety or leading up to State competition (age group). distraction. Personal competitions (i.e. school or Performance goals should be improvement (in both age-group). Skill evaluated regularly, as they performance and skill) and development, improvement, apply to both training and enjoyment should be and number of events swum competition. Each race recognised and reinforced. are the most important goals. opportunity is used as a COMPETITION OBJECTIVES State and National (age group) performance goals. Competition in open events as ability improves. Selection of events begins to focus on stroke and distance. Race strategies and mental skills are perfected. learning experience. (* During some developmental stages girls will be capable of handling a greater volume of training than boys, due to an advanced rate of maturation.)

8 References: Balyi I. & Hamilton A. The concept of long term athlete development. Strength and Conditioning Coach Vol.3, No Borer K. The effects of exercise on growth (review article) Sports Medicine Vol.20, No Cahill B. & Pearl A. (Eds) Intensive Participation in Children s Sport Human Kinetics Publishers, Portier B. Planning for training, performance and talent development presented at the 1996 ASCA Convention. Richards R. Physical growth and maturational characteristics of adolescent female competitive swimmers Indiana University, USA (published by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1983). Seefeldt V., Ewing M. & Walk S. An overview of youth sports programs in the United States. Executive summary, published 18/10/91, by Youth Sports Institute, Michigan State University, USA. Touretski G. Long term swimming planning. From the Proceeding of the 1994 ASCA Coaches & Teachers Convention. NATIONAL TALENT IDENTIFICATION & DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR SWIMMING Developed by Bill Nelson, David Pyne, Bill Sweetenham [using the resources of the Australian Institute of Sport] for Australian Swimming Inc., September 1991 INTRODUCTION It is acknowledged that a well-planned and organised Talent Identification & Development Program is essential to the successful development of every sport. Whilst research has identified a number of key markers of potential swimming success, there is no practical package of information available to coaches in the field. The proposed model has been developed from information collected at the AIS. It is put forward as a simple model for the identification and tracking of potentially successful competitive swimmers. Most swimming coaches do not have access to sophisticated testing equipment or support personnel in the sport sciences (physiology, biomechanics, psychology) or sports medicine. The first two stages of this TID package are grounded in scientific principle, yet practical and simple enough to be administered by coaches working from their home pool (or with minimal technical assistance). The advanced stages (State and National) are limited by the resources allocated to any proposed TID project. The four tiers of the proposed system are FOUR TIER SYSTEM 1. SCHOOL (ages years) Simple anthropometric measures, pool based and running (i.e. as a general measure of fitness) tests. General Information Date of Birth, Contact Information, Training/Competition History (if any) Physical Measurements Height, Weight, Arm Span 1500m run for time, and 2x40m timed sprint runs 4x25m maximum effort swims on 2-minute cycle, and 4x50m maximum effort swims on 3-minute cycle 2. CLUB (ages years) Tests from Tier 1 (running tests may be omitted), plus additional pool tests specific to competitive swimming. 800m or 1500m maximum sustained effort swim Start to 10m Turn, time 7.5m to +7.5m 50m maximum effort kicking only (use kickboard) and 50m maximum effort pulling (pull buoy and rubber band on legs)

9 3. STATE (ages years) Swimmers identified at the second tier will repeat the preceding tests and add the following under the supervision of a State Coaching or Development Officer. Sum of skinfolds (males 8 sites, females 7 sites) 6x200m at 90% of 200m best time with 1-minute rest between 1500m endurance swim (replaces 800m swim if used at club level) 100m kick and 100m pull (replaces 50m kick and pull tests) Laboratory Tests: bicycle ergometer (endurance and sprint tests), vertical jump, sit and reach, hyperextension, lung function and capacity, chin-ups Nutrition Assessment 4. NATIONAL (ages years) Swimmers at this level have graduated from State level program and will attend Talent Development Camps under the supervision of State-National Coaches or Institutes-Academies of Sport. Repeat anthropometric assessment (note changes in growth-development) Repeat pool tests and add a race simulation Repeat lab tests and add a swim bench test Specialist Tests: hand/wrist X-ray assessment of skeletal maturation, dietary analysis, psychological profiling, musculo-skeletal assessment (using standard protocols) by a physiotherapist, biomechanical evaluation of swimming technique, haematology profile (i.e. full blood count and iron status), full kinanthropometric assessment DESCRIPTION OF TEST PROTOCOLS ANTHROPOMETRIC TESTS Height Weight Arm Span Skinfolds Measurement taken on a stadiometer or other calibrated linear measure to the nearest 0.1 cm. (Note: field testing may use a metal tape fixed to a wall) Measured on calibrated scales to the nearest 0.1 kg. (Note: swimmers measured in their swimsuits) Measure full double arm span with subject in an upright position from the tip of the middle finger of each hand, to the nearest 0.1 cm. (Note: a metal tape measure may be attached to a wall at shoulder height) Measured with Harpenden callipers by a trained technician at eight sites for males and seven sites for females and reported as a sum of millimetres. (Note: Standard test protocols as outlined by AIS) GENERAL FITNESS TESTS (LAND BASED) 40m Sprints 1500m Run Bicycle Ergometer Arm Crank Ergometer Swim Bench Using a marked 40m level running surface, record the best time in seconds (to the nearest 0.01 sec.) for two standing-start trials. Using a marked running track, record the time (to the nearest 0.01 sec.) for a maximum effort 1500m run. Two tests are performed on a calibrated stationary bicycle, (1) submaximal incremental endurance test until the heart rate reaches a target of 75% of the estimated maximum heart rate. Record power output, watt/kg body weight (Note: test protocol is described in detail by Telford, et. al., 1989), and (2) standing maximal effort 10-second power and work capacity test. From a stationary standing start the subject pedals at maximum speed for 10 seconds, record peak watts/kg and total work (kj and J/kg). 10-second power test performed on the arm cranking ergometer to assess upper body muscle power. (note: see details of test protocol in the references) Used to assess upper body strength/power during a swimming-like movement pattern. The swim bench resistance is set to zero and from a stationary start the subject performs 10 maximal effort double-arm pulls (i.e. butterfly movement), best of two trials reported in kg/m. (Note: the swimmer s legs must be stabilised during the test)

10 Vertical Jump Sit and Reach Chin Ups Using a vertical jump board mounted on a wall, measure the distance from a baseline mark (from a side-on position to the wall a normal overhead reach) to the highest position attained from a standing jump, nearest 1.0 cm. (Note: record the best of three trials, subject may use a crouched jumping technique with an arm swing, but may not take a forward step to execute the jump) Use a purpose built sit and reach box to measure (nearest 1.0 cm) the distance reached by the fingertips beyond the feet (ankles at right angles, toes pointed up). This test is used to assess lower back and hamstring flexibility. (Note: allow subjects to perform stretching exercised before the test) Maximum number of full chin-ups completed in a single attempt. The subject grips the bar with palms facing forward, arms must be fully extended before the next upward movement. 4 x 25m Speed Test 4 x 50m Speed/Endurance Test 800m or 1500m Endurance Test 6 x 200m Submaximal Test 50m or 100m Kick and Pull Tests Start to 10m Test Turns (time -7.5m to +7.5m) Race Simulation SWIMMING TESTS (POOL BASED) From a dive start, record the time (0.01-sec.) and number of strokes taken to swim 4 x 25m swims on a 2-minute starting cycle. Record the average time and average stroke count. (Note: start time as feet leave the starting block) From a dive start, record the time (0.01-sec.) on each swim performed on a 3 minute starting cycle. Record each time and the average time. (Note: start time as feet leave the starting block) From a push start, record the time (0.01-sec.) on a maximum effort (even pace) swim. If possible, record the 100m split time and the stroke rate (i.e. strokes per minute from three full stroke cycles, taken in the middle of the lap prior to each 100m turn). From a push start, record times (and stroke rate during the second 100m) on each 200m swim, resting 1 minute between swims. Swimmers are given a target time to hold on each swim that is calculated to be 90% of their current best time. (Note: start time as feet leave the wall) Younger (under 12 years) swimmers should complete the tests using a 50m distance, other swimmer should use 100m. From a push start, the swimmer either kicks (using a kick board) or pulls (using pullbuoy and rubber band around the ankles) a maximum effort over the distance. Record the time (0.01 sec.) from feet-leave to hand (or kickboard) touch. (Note: to standardise the test do not allow swimmers to move either hand off the kickboard during the test, no paddles are allowed when pulling) This is a test that measures a combination of leg power and technique during a racing start. Record the time (0.01-sec.) from a feet-leave racing start (this eliminates reaction time) to a point 10m from the start (stop the time when the head crosses the 10m point). Record the best of three trials. Measure the time it takes to perform a turn. The time (0.01-sec.) starts as the subject s head crosses a point that is 7.5m from the wall and finishes when the head crosses the line after completing a racing turn. (Note: record best of three trials and note the stroke used) The most specific indicator of current swimming ability is race performance. The swimmer may perform at any race distance. (Note: swimmers should be well rested prior to the race simulation and given every opportunity to perform at/near their best time) Radiological Psychological Profile Physiotherapy SPECIALIST TESTS & EVALUATION X-ray of the left wrist (performed by a radiologist and evaluated by a trained technician) to estimate skeletal maturation and potential for future growth. Administration of psychological inventory (performed by a sport psychologist). Administration of the standard screening techniques (i.e. performed by a trained professional) used by Australian Swimming Inc. to assess range of motion and

11 Biomechanics Haematology Nutrition Anthropometry joint stability. Full evaluation of stroke technique (from underwater and above water). Full blood profile (Note: Blood sample must be taken by a qualified medical practitioner or medical technician). Evaluation of nutritional practice (performed by a Sports Dietitian) using a 3-day dietary assessment. Follow-up counselling and education is provided by the Sports Dietitian. During training camps there may be an assessment of fluid loss/replenishment. Full anthropometric assessment to assess skeletal ratios (Note: protocols used during the 1991 Kinanthropometric Aquatic Sports Project conducted at the 1991 World Swimming Championships) References Telford R.D., et al Skinfold measures and weight control in elite athletes. EXCEL Vol.5 No.2, Telford R.D., et al A simple method for the assessment of general fitness: the tri-level profile. The Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport Vol.21, No.3, Blanch P. Personal communication regarding physio screening techniques (Note: Since the development of the TID model the screening protocols used by physiotherapists have been established, see The Swimming Machine, published by ASI, 1997) SUGGESTED STANDARDS FOR NATIONAL TID PROGRAM SWIMMING The data presented in this document was accumulated during training camps conducted at the Australian Institute of Sport during 1989 and Tier 4 screening protocols were performed on 35 male and 26 female swimmers between the age of years. The standards represent elite Age Group swimmers (13-15 years) and are appropriate for Tier 3 (State) and Tier 4 (National) comparisons only. A simple six-category scale has been used to report the performance standards; they range from below to well above the norm. Standards are not reported for all tests. The following categories are used 1. POOR Lowest among State/National Swimmers 2. FAIR 3. AVERAGE 4. GOOD Mid-level categories are divided by equal increments 5. EXCELLENT 6. ELITE Highest among State/National Swimmers Table 1 Skinfolds Suggested Standards for Sum (mm) of 8 sites (males) or 7 sites (females) Males Females Table 2 Cycle Endurance Test: Suggested Standards (watts/kg of body weight) Males Females Table 3 10 Second Power Test: (cycle ergometer) Suggested Standards (watts/kg) Males Females Table 4 Vertical Jump Suggested Standards (cm) Males < >54 Females < >43 Table 5 Sit and Reach Suggested Standards (cm)

12 Males < > 24 Females < > 24 Table 6 Chin-Ups Suggested Standards (maximum number of full chin-ups completed) Males < >20 Females >16 Table 7 4 x 25m Sprint Swims Suggested Standards (average time in seconds) Freestyle <11.0 Males Butterfly <12.5 Backstroke <13.5 Breaststroke <14.5 Freestyle <12.0 Females Butterfly <13.0 Backstroke <14.5 Breaststroke <16.0 Males Females Table 8 4 x 50m Speed-Endurance (average time in seconds) Freestyle <25.0 Butterfly <28.0 Backstroke <29.0 Breaststroke <32.0 Freestyle <28.0 Butterfly <30.0 Backstroke <32.0 Breaststroke <36.0 Table 9 Submaximum 6 x 200m Suggested Standards (average time: minutes:seconds) Freestyle <2.08 Males Butterfly <2.18 Backstroke <2.20 Breaststroke <2.40 Freestyle <2.17 Female Butterfly <2.28 Backstroke <2.32 Breaststroke <2.58 Table m Freestyle, Endurance Swim Suggested Standards (minutes:seconds) Males <17.00 Females <18.00 Males Females Table m Pulling Suggested Standards (minutes:seconds) Freestyle > <1.00 Butterfly > <1.05 Backstroke > <1.10 Breaststroke > <1.35 Freestyle > <1.06 Butterfly > <1.13 Backstroke > <1.20 Breaststroke > <1.40

13 Males Females Table m Kicking Suggested Standards (minutes:seconds) Freestyle > <1.20 Butterfly > <1.20 Backstroke > <1.25 Breaststroke > <1.25 Freestyle > <1.25 Butterfly > <1.25 Backstroke > <1.30 Breaststroke > <1.30