Introduction to Highway Engineering

Transcription

1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering 1 HISTORY OF ROADS ROMAN ROADS Roman roads, dating back to 312 BC, were built using rocks bounded by lime grout and other natural pozzolans as binders. 2

2 HISTORY OF ROADS TELFORD PAVEMENTS Thomas Telford started building roads in the late 1700s while he was Surveyor of Public Works in Salop county. He attempted to build relatively flat roads (no more than a 1 in 30 slope). The pavement thickness was between 14 to 18 inches. Telford pavements did not use binding agents to hold the stones together 3 HISTORY OF ROADS MACADAM PAVEMENTS Introduced by John McAdam (often known as Macadam) in the early 1800s. He introduced the usage of angular agregates on well compacted subgrade for better performance. The subgrade was sloped to improve drainage. The angular agregates were placed in two layers for a total depth of 8 inches (maximum aggregate size was 3 inches). On top of this a wearing course was placed, about 2 inches thick (maximum aggregate size was 1 inch). He did not use binder to hold the stones together because he realized that the broken stones would eventually become bound together by fines generated by traffic. 4

3 HISTORY OF ROADS TAR MACADAM PAVEMENTS Built using the basic Macadam pavement but the surface material was bound using tar. The tar (coal tar) was a residue from coal gas lighting. The first tar macadam road was build in Lincold Road in Tarmac was also introduced in the early 1900s using blast furnace slag coated with tar, pitch, portland cement and a resin. SHEET ASPHALT PAVEMENTS Introduced in the mid-1800s, it consisted of sheet asphalt placed on a concrete base which had a thickness of between 4 inches (for light traffic) and 6 inches (for heavy traffic). Traffic load, concrete strength and soil support were the parameters used to determine the final concrete layer thickness. BITHULITIC PAVEMENTS One of the earliest Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavements in history. Introduced by Frederick J. Warren when he issued patents for a hot mix asphalt paving material and process which he called bitulithic. A typical bithulitic mix contained 6% bituminous cement and graded aggregates proportioned for low air voids. 5 ASPHALT PAVEMENT HISTORY The first recorded use of asphalt by humans was by the Sumerians around 3,000 years. Around 1500 A.D., the Incas of Peru were using a composition similar to modern bituminous macadam to pave parts of their highway system. 6

4 TAR VS. ASPHALT Tar and asphalt are two different materials. Tar, often called "coal tar" is a byproduct of the destructive distillation of coal to form coke. Asphalt is a petroleum residue left over from the distillation of crude oil. In pavement applications, tar is generally more brittle and less elastic than asphalt causing it to crack under typical loading and environmental conditions. Tar will, however, not dissolve as easily in the presence of lighter petroleum distillation products such as gasoline and kerosene. While asphalt is used throughout the pavement industry, tar is generally limited to sealant use. 7 PAVEMENT TYPES FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT - Those which are surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials. - These types of pavements are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads. - A flexible pavement structure is generally composed of several layers of materials which can accommodate this "flexing". - Flexible pavement uses more flexible surface course and distributes loads over a smaller area. - It relies on a combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade 8

5 PAVEMENT TYPES RIGID PAVEMENT - Those which are surfaced with portland cement concrete (PCC). - These types of pavements are called "rigid" because they are substantially stiffer than flexible pavements due to PCC's high stiffness. - Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high stiffness, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. - The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement's structural capacity. 9 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT Wearing Course Binder Course Base Surface Sub-base Formation Level Subgrade 10

6 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE RIGID PAVEMENT Concrete Slab Sub-base Formation Level Subgrade 11 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS RIGHT-OF-WAY (ROW) Shoulder Clear zone Travel lanes Median Verge Embankment Divided Rural Highway Ditch 12

7 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS A B D C 13 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS For rural cross sections, the roadway width is the combined width of the traveled way median shoulders auxiliary lanes For urban cross sections, the roadway consists of the travel lanes auxiliary lanes including parking lanes, any bike lanes median curb and gutter 14

8 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS TRAVEL LANE provide the path for travel lane width greatly influences the safety and comfort of driving travel lane widths generally vary between 2.7 m and 3.6 m depending on functional classification, traffic volumes, and project scope of work MEDIAN also known as the central reservation the median width is measured from the inside edge of the two traveled ways and includes inside shoulders and/or median curb and gutters provides segregation between opposing directions of the traveled ways assists in draining of surface runoff when planted with trees and shrubs, a median will help reduce glare from vehicle headlights median can be used for future expansion of the highway (for additional number of lanes due to traffic increase) 15 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS SHOULDER The road shoulder is a reserved area by the verge of the road. It may be either paved (HMA or concrete) or unpaved (aggregate or turf). The functions of road shoulder include: provide structural support for the traveled way provide support for guardrail and prevents erosion around guardrail posts prevent or minimize pavement edge drop-offs provide space for emergency and discretionary stop improve roadside safety by providing more recovery area for run-off-the-road vehicles facilitate maintenance operations facilitate pavement drainage provide space for pedestrian and bicycle use 16

9 ROAD CROSS-SECTIONAL SECTIONAL ELEMENTS CLEAR ZONE Clear zone is defined as the total roadside border area, starting at the edge of the traveled way, available for safe use by errant vehicles. Simply stated, it is an unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way that allows a driver to stop safely or regain control of a vehicle that leaves the traveled way. This area may consist of a shoulder, a recoverable slope, a non-recoverable slope, and/or a clear run-out area. The desired minimum width is dependent upon traffic volumes and speeds and on the roadside geometry. 17 DEVELOPMENT OF ROADS IN MALAYSIA The road development in the Malay Peninsula started during the British occupation. Roads were built to transport products of mining and plantation industry. Tin mining and rubber industry were the important reasons for road construction. The first road was built in Perak, linking Kamunting and Ujung Tembo. The construction then was extended to Pulau Pinang. The active mining activity in Lembah Kinta also become the reason of road construction from Taiping to Ipoh in Currently, Peninsula Malaysia has about kilometers of road linking North Malaysia to South Malaysia. The total length of highway throughout Malaysia is about 1192 kilometers, including expressways such as NKVE, ELITE, KESAS and BESRAYA. 18

10 ROAD STANDARDS IN MALAYSIA Standard R6 / U6 R5 / U5 R4 / U4 Description - highest geometric design standard - serves long trips with high speeds, comfort and safety - with divided carriageway - full access control - e.g. rural and urban expressways - high geometric design standard - serves long to intermediate trips with high to medium speeds - partial access control - e.g. highways, primary roads and arterials - medium geometric standard - serves intermediate trip lengths with medium speeds - partial access control - e.g. primary roads, secondary roads, minor arterials and major collectors 19 ROAD STANDARDS IN MALAYSIA R3 / U3 R2/ U2 R1 / U1 R1a U1a - low geometric standard - serves mainly local traffic - partial or no access control - e.g. secondary roads, collectors and major local streets - lowest geometric standard for two-way flow - applied only to local traffic with low volumes of vehicles of commercial traffic - e.g. minor roads and local streets - very low geometric standard - applied to very low traffic where the chances of two-way flow is low applied to local access to restricted areas such as access to microwave stations and security areas applied to local access to low cost housing areas 20

11 ROAD CLASSIFICATION IN MALAYSIA CATEGORIES OF ROADS RURAL ROADS Expressway Highway Primary Road Secondary Road Minor Road URBAN ROADS Expressway Arterial Collector Local Street 21 RURAL ROADS Expressways divided interstate highways for through traffic has full access control with grade separated intersections for fast traveling serve long trips provide higher traveling speed and comfort designed to the highest standards Highways constitute the interstate national network complement the expressway network link up directly or indirectly the federal and state capitals, and points of entry/exit to the country serve long to intermediate trips high to medium speed smooth traffic is provided partial access control 22

12 RURAL ROADS Primary Roads constitute the major roads forming the basic network within a state serve intermediate trip lengths and medium traveling speeds smooth traffic is provided partial access control link up state and district capitals or other major towns Secondary Roads constitute the major roads forming the basic network within a district or regional development areas serve intermediate trips partial access control link up major towns within the district or regional development areas 23 RURAL ROADS Minor Roads applies to all roads other than those described above form the basic road network within a land scheme or other inhabited areas include roads with special functions such as holiday resort roads, security roads or access roads to microwave stations serve local traffic with short trip lengths partial or no access control 24

13 Schematic illustration of an urban road network URBAN STREETS Expressway Arterial Collector Local Street 25 URBAN ROADS Expressways divided highways for through traffic form the basic network in urbanised area has full access control with grade separated intersections for fast traveling serve long trips provide higher traveling speed and comfort designed to the highest standards complement the rural expressways Arterials continuous roads with partial access control for through traffic convey traffic from residential areas to the vicinity of the central business district, or from one part of the city to another which does not intend to penetrate identifiable neighbourhood smooth traffic flow is essential since they carry large traffic volumes 26

14 URBAN ROADS Collectors roads with partial access control designed to serve on a collector/distributor of traffic between arterials and local road systems major roads which penetrate and serve identifiable neighbourhood, commercial areas and industrial areas Local Streets the basic network within a neighbourhood and serves to offer direct access to abutting land links to the collector roads and thus serve short trip lengths through traffic should be discouraged 27 ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN MALAYSIA For the purpose of road administration, roads are classified as Tolled Highways, Federal, State, Local Authority (City Hall, Municipal or Local Council) and Kampung (District Office) Roads depending upon their jurisdiction. Tolled Highways - link cities/towns/new developments in order to increase mobility and reduce congestion on federal highways - for through traffic with full access control - involve grade-separated intersection - each carriageway consists of two to three traveling lanes and an emergency lane - provide facilities such as rest and relax areas, shelters for motorcyclists, emergency phone service, etc. - e.g. PLUS, NKVE, ELITE, SPRINT, KESAS 28

15 ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN MALAYSIA Federal Roads - roads that are gazetted under the Federal Road Ordinance - roads linking state capitals, airports, railway stations and ports - also includes roads within FELDA land schemes and those in other regional land schemes constructed with federal funds - maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the federal government - maintenance is carried out through the state JKR and funded by the federal government State Roads - all other roads within the states outside the jurisdiction of the local authority or district office - built to JKR standards - constructed with state funds - maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the state government - maintenance is carried out through the state JKR 29 ROAD ADMINISTRATION IN MALAYSIA Local Authority Roads - all roads within the limits of the local authority (city hall, municipal or town council) - the local authority is responsible for the maintenance of such roads Village / District Office Roads - all roads directly under the jurisdiction of the district office - usually unpaved roads with no right of way - the district office is responsible for the maintenance of these roads 30

16 ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF ROADS IN MALAYSIA Economic Planning Unit (EPU) Unit Perancang Ekonomi (UPE) - forming and planning policies for all aspects of socioeconomic developments for the country - the Infrastructure and Utilities Section plays a role in the planning, formation and evaluation of transportation policies and programs identifying, analyzing, evaluating and coordinating all road developments plans Highway Planning Unit (HPU) Unit Perancang Jalan (UPJ) - conducts traffic engineering studies such as traffic volume, origin-destination, traffic growth rate, vehicle speed, accident-prone areas, etc. - among the function of the HPU are : - data collection of travel characteristics and traffic operations - incorporating highway planning and land use planning - establishing the needs of the highway sector for long-term/short-term programs - studying the feasibilities of highway projects - studying the causes of accidents, identifying areas prone to accidents and coming up with steps to reduce/prevent accidents 31 Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA) Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM) LLM is responsible in - the supervision and execution of highway design, construction and maintenance - the supervision and execution of the design, construction and maintenance of rest and relax areas and other facilities - toll collection from highway users - planning and research of effective usage of highways and its facilities - taking steps to further develop existing highways and its facilities Public Works Department (PWD) Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) - responsible for development projects, especially in the construction of public buildings, federal roads, state roads and bridges - involved in planning, construction and maintenance - the Road Branch (Cawangan Jalan) is responsible for planning and preserving the conditions of roads for the safety and comfort of the road users - the Road Branch is also involved in pavement rehabilitation, road widening, and the strengthening and repair of pavements, pavement drainage systems and road furniture 32

17 Road Transport Department (RTD) Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan (JPJ) Objectives : - improve road safety by monitoring motorized vehicles and drivers - collection of road taxes Functions : - enforce the Road Transport Act update the tax collection system - assist in reducing road accidents - assist the government in their effort reduce the effects of transport on the environment Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board (CVLP) Lembaga Perlesenan Kenderaan Perdagangan (LPKP) - responsible for issuing and controlling of license permits of commercial vehicles and public transport such as taxis, buses and rented cars - the function of this board is limited to the consideration of applications for licenses and the imposing restrictions after applications are approved 33 State Police Polis Negeri - the Traffic Branch is responsible for ensuring safety and discipline of drivers on the road, and law enforcement against traffic offenders - the role of the State Police include - ensuring smooth traffic by patrolling the roads and easing traffic congestion manually if the need arises - issuing summons to traffic offenders and collecting compounds from them - recording, analyzing and investigating road accidents - controlling traffic during large-scale functions Department of Town and Country Planning Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa (JPBD) - arrange and control developments in accordance with the Town and Country Planning Act in the transportation sector, JPBD is in charge of carrying out planning of transportation systems within a town - the State JPBD assists the State government and Town Councils in the planning of land use and the control of development in accordance with state and national policies - the State JPBD also prepares structure plans and local plans covering all aspects related with planning, which includes transportation 34

18 Local Authorities Pihak Berkuasa Tempatan (PBT) - District Council, Town Council, Municipality Council, and City Hall - plan and develop areas within its administration - the PBT is responsible for - infrastructure allocation and road planning - managing and controlling traffic congestion - creating adequate parking space and managing parking fee collection - street landscaping - providing public transportation services which are prompt, affordable and effective - constructing and maintaining roads Department of Environment (DOE) Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS) - controls and monitors environmental pollution - preserve and conserve the environment - in the context of road transport, the DOE plays its role in - enforcing the Motorized Vehicle Regulations 1977 through the Environment Quality Act controlling and monitoring of exhaust and noise emission of vehicles - studying and analyzing the impacts of transportation on the environment - producing Environmental Impact Assessment reports for new projects and developments 35 Summary of the Functions of Government Agencies in Road and ransport Administration Planning, financing and control of road construction Design, construction and maintenance of roads and highways Road licensing Control and enforcement Road Safety Function Preservation of the environment Town and country planning Department / Agency Involved Economic Planning Unit Highway Planning Unit Public Works Department Malaysian Highway Authority Road Transport Department Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board State Police Road Transport Department Road Safety Council Department of Environment Department of Town and Country Planning Providing urban traffic facilities Local Authorities 36

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