Marine Conservation and Research Expedition The Seychelles FISH AND CORAL TRAINING MANUAL

Transcription

1 Marine Conservation and Research Expedition The Seychelles FISH AND CORAL TRAINING MANUAL

2 Introduction GVI established the Seychelles expedition in 2004 with the aim of aiding the ongoing marine research currently undertaken by our partners here in the inner islands. Our main partner SNPA, the Seychelles National Parks Authority, which also incorporates SCMRT-MPA, Seychelles Centre for Marine Research & Technology, is an organisation responsible for carrying out marine research in the Seychelles and protecting the existing marine parks. Our other major partners include the SFA, Seychelles Fishing Authority, a governmental organisation which regulates the artisanal and commercial fisheries, and finally MCSS, the Marine Conservation Society Seychelles, a local NGO concentrating on turtle, whale shark and cetacean conservation, research and ecotourism. In 1998 a severe coral bleaching event decimated many coral reefs around the globe, including the reefs surrounding the inner granitic islands of the Seychelles. Efforts to monitor the recovery of reefs in the Seychelles were initiated after this event. This began with a 3 year project, named the Shoals of Capricorn, which extensively monitored the entire inner islands. The SCMRT was set up at this time to continue the work, and to aid the MPA with the management of the marine parks. After the Shoals of Capricorn project the monitoring was then taken over by Reef Care International, which set out the protocols that were adopted by GVI in Today GVI runs two permanent expeditions in the Seychelles; one based on Mahé in the Baie Ternay Marine Park, and the other based on Curieuse Island Marine Park just off the island of Praslin. The expeditions core research is run simultaneously throughout the year; and both sets of volunteers will learn and monitor the same species list, using the same methodology at each site. Alongside the core studies volunteers will be involved in additional research programs with data collection for a variety of different studies. Plankton sampling is conducted along with in-water turtle behaviour dives. Also during the turtle breeding season volunteers have the chance to survey beaches for evidence of nesting. This training manual has been put together so you can begin studying the scientific training required to complete the surveys necessary for the expeditions in the Seychelles. Included are species lists and descriptions of all fish, coral and invertebrates and a brief overview of the methodology. You will be alloctaed either coral or fish to study prior to arrival. Along with the training manual, scientific training will be given by staff in the field going into more depth on the specific survey topics along with other lectures which give a better understanding of overall project aims and background information. page2 of 59

3 Contents 1. Coral Section p Introduction (Survey Methodology Guide) p. 4 Coral Reef Monitoring p. 4 Coral Reef Recruitment p. 5 Volenteers Responsibilities p Hard Coral Terminology Guide p. 6 Coral Terminology p. 7 Coral Lifeforms p Coral Species List p Hard Coral Identification Guide p. 11 Workshop 1 p. 11 Workshop 2 p. 16 Workshop 3 p. 20 Workshop 4 p Coral Glossary p Substrate, Benthic Organisms and Algal Types p Coral Reference List p Fish Section p Introduction (survey Methodology Guide) p. 31 Stationary Point Count Survey p. 31 Belt Transit Survey p.32 Volunteers Responsibility p Basic Fish Anatomy p Fish Family Identification Guide p. 35 Butterflyfish p. 34 Angelfish p. 35 Surgeonfish p. 36 Grouper p. 37 Parrotfish p. 39 Wrasse p. 40 Sweetlips p. 43 Snapper p. 44 Emperor p.45 Trigger p. 46 Rabbitfish p. 47 Other Families p Invertebrate Section p Introduction p Invertebrate Identification Guide p Invertebrate List for Fish and Coral Recruitment Phase p Recommended Reading List p. 58 page3 of 59

4 1. Coral Section 1.1 Introduction (Survey Methodology Guide) Two phases of monitoring occur annually at GVI Seychelles Marine Expedition: o Coral Reef Monitoring phase o Coral Recruitment phase These separate phases use differing aims and methodology to achieve the data required Coral Reef Monitoring Aims: To monitor live hard coral cover and diversity. To monitor invertebrate abundance. To monitor sea cucumber, lobster and octopus abundance. The surveys undertaken as part of the coral reef monitoring aim to provide a picture of the overall health of the coral reefs at the survey sites of the inner islands of Seychelles. The methodology focuses on assessing live hard coral cover and coral diversity, including available substrate and percentage algal cover of the reefs, and including invertebrate abundance. This is achieved by use of the Line Intersept Transect (LIT) survey technique whereby a 10m survey tape is laid over the reef and all coral and substrate that lies directly beneath the tape is recorded, as well as any algal cover over the substrate. Coral diversity is measured by use of a 50m survey tape being laid over the reef and all coral is recorded to genus level within a 5m band width of the survey tape. Invertebrate abundance and other benthic organismsare recorded from surveys which run along the 10m LIT tape in a 2m band width of the tape. The aims are to build upon existing data from previous research in the Seychelles to ascertain recent trends in coral reef recovery since the mass bleaching event of Throughout the year data is collected on targeted sea cucumbers, lobster and octopus abundance, so during the dives octopus, lobster and sea cucumber data is ascertained directly from the surveys completed. page4 of 59

5 Coral Reef Recruitment Aims: To monitor coral recruitment (newly settled juveniles) by recording corals in the 0 5cm size class. To monitor population density of sea urchins and invertebrate coral predators. To monitor sea cucumber, lobster and octopus abundance. Coral recruitment surveys aim to provide a picture of reef recovery following a series of bleaching events over the last decade, particularly the mass bleaching event of The methodology focuses on estimating hard coral recruitment density and determining densities of invertebrates that predate in the coral communities. This is achieved by use of quadrat / point count survey technique whereby a 1m 2 quad is randomly placed within the survey area, substrate and percentage algal cover is recorded, as well as all recruit sized corals, between 0 5cm, along with any signs of disease and predatory grazing. Population density of coral predators is assessed by use of a 50m x 5m survey line running across the survey site, whereby all sea urchins and invertebrate coral predators are recorded. The aims are to build upon existing data from previous research in the Seychelles to ascertain recent trends in coral reef recovery since the mass bleaching event of Throughout the year data is collected on targeted sea cucumbers, lobster and octopus abundance, so during the dives octopus, lobster and sea cucumber data is ascertained directly from the surveys completed. Volunteer s Responsibilities: If allocated coral to study you will be asked to complete survey sites, collecting all relevant data on coral cover and invertebrate surveys which is then transferred onto the partners of GVI in Seychelles. You must learn all of the 50 coral genera surveyed and invertebrate species surveyed. You must pass appropriate assessments on knowledge, underwater identification and survey methodology. This is achieved through the use of this expedition training manual, presentations and lectures on surveyed species in the field, in water guided dives and terrestrial and in water methodology practices. page5 of 59

6 1.2 Hard Coral Terminology Guide This guide serves to introduce the 50 coral genera that we monitor. A list of their names is included in the guide, so please look at them before your arrival and begin learning the genera. The staff on base will go through everything again in more detail, and you will receive presentations and lectures on the corals, including any local variations present in the Seychelles. A basic knowledge will be easier to build upon when you arrive as opposed to everything being new. The best way to learn coral is to start with their terminology, described in the first section of this guide. The second section gives details on the particular anatomical features of each genus. What is a Coral? Coral generally refers to reef building corals of the order of Scleractinia, which are commonly known as hard corals, due to their limestone skeletons. It was not until 1753 when a French biologist J.A. de Peysonell proved that corals were in fact animals rather than plants after undertaking a study in the Western Atlantic. Previously they were often mistaken for plants because of their attachment to the substrate, apparent lack of independent movement and their superficial resemblance to flora. It was the discovery of zooxanthallae; symbiotic cells found living in the flesh of corals and other reef animals that helped unravel the question of whether corals are animals or plants. All corals are classified under the Phylum Cnidaria. It is, however, not just the reef building hard corals which are in this phylum; sea fans, whips, anemones, black corals, soft corals, jellyfish, Hydroids, Zoanthids, and corallimorphs are also members. There are also a number of common features within this phylum: Cup-shaped body Single central opening (gastrovascular cavity), which acts as both mouth and anus Radial symmetry Ring of tentacles surrounding the mouth of each polyp Associated tentacles surround the opening and are covered with stinging cells called nematocysts used for both capturing prey and defence. page6 of 59

7 Coral Terminology Living tissue of the coral: The polyp; the coral individual Coenosarc; layer of tissue connecting one polyp to the next The Corallite (skeletal structure of the coral): Calice; the rim or opening of the corallite Corallite wall; the raised structure surrounding the calice page7 of 59

8 Coenosteum; the area of skeleton between the corallites. It lies underneath the coenosarc. Septo-costae; vertical plates that radiate out from the corallite. The septa lie inside the wall of the corallite. Is there is no obvious corallite wall the whole vertical plate is called the septo-costa. Columella; formed from the inner edge of the septa forming a complex tangle of skeleton at the centre of the corallite. Paliform lobes; pillar or teeth-like projections on the inner edge of some or all the septa. Corallite Arrangement: Ceroid; corallites share walls Plocoid; corallites have own walls Phaceloid; corallites of uniform height connected at the base of their skeletal tubes. Meandroid; corallites form valleys Flabello-meandroid; corallites form valleys, but valleys do not share walls. Corallite Reproduction: Intratentacular reproduction or fission; occurs when the parent corallite splits into two daughter corallites. Extratentacular reproduction; occurs when the parent corallite produces a new daughter colony by budding from one side of the corallite. Coral Lifeforms The lifeform of the coral refers to the shape it grows in. Some coral genera and species will only grow in one lifeform whilst others grow in many. The lifeform a coral takes can depend on the physical characteristics of the environment, such as the area of reef or the depth of the water in which they are growing. Some lifeforms (e.g. massive) are more resilient than others (e.g. branching) to wave action whilst others (e.g. foliose) may allow more light to be absorbed. Branching Colonies must have second degree branching. Tabulate Spreads out horizontally to form flattened plates, like a table. page8 of 59

9 Encrusting Large proportion of the volume is attached directly to the substrate, following its contours. Submassive Forms into columnar colony with knob-like sections. Digitate Like fingers (digits!) Foliose Massive Forms into leaf-like sections, with attachment to the substrate limited to one or a number of isolated areas. Rounded boulder shape. Mushroom Free-living. The lifeform recorded should be the one that best describes the WHOLE COLONY. page9 of 59

10 1.3 Coral Species List Listed below are the coral families and genera which you need to learn prior to your expedition. You are required to learn the Latin names of the families/genera. A reference list is included at the end of the section. The best way to learn your coral is to start studying one family at a time. First identify characteristic features for that family and then the individual genera. It is also necessary to understand and learn the biology and the different parts of the coral. Much of this will be explained in the Hard Coral Identification Handout enclosed. Acroporidae Pocilloporidae Poritidae Acropora Astreopora Montipora Pocillopora Stylophora Seriatopora Porites Goniopora Phylum: Cnidaria Class: Anthozoa Subclass: Hexacorallia Order: Scleractinia Fungiidae Fungia Herpolitha Diaseris Cycloseris Podabacia Halomitra Polyphyllia Favia Alveopora Favites Dendrophyllidae Turbinaria Montastrea Siderastrea Plesiastrea Pseudosiderastrea Goniastrea Siderastreidae Coscinaraea Echinopora Faviidae Psammocora Diploastrea Lobophyllia Leptastrea Mussidae Symphyllia Cyphastrea Acanthastrea Platygyra Blastomussa Leptoria Oculindae Galaxea Oulophyllia Euphyllidae Physogyra Astrocoeniidae Stylocoeniella Pectiniidae Merulinidae Pectinia Mycedium Echinophyllia Merulina Hydrophora Agariciidae Pavona Leptoseris Gardineroseris Coeloseris Pachyseris page10 of 59

11 1.4 Hard Identification Guide Text in BOLD highlights key features of the individual genera. Family: Acroporidae Genus: WORKSHOP 1 o Background: Very diverse and abundant species rich family of reef building corals. Found on most reefs often in shallower waters. o Lifeforms: Branching, Tabulate, Encrusting, Submassive, Digitate, Massive, Foliose. o Appearance: Corallites (except Astreopora) are small, columellae are poorly developed. ACROPORA Background: Largest genus of hard corals and the main builders of most coral reefs. There are two reasons why they are so successful: 1) most species have light skeletons that allow them to grow quickly and overcome their neighbours & 2) they have an axial corallite, which has the job of budding new corallites. Due to this axial corallite, growth is in a co-ordinated fashion. Acropora are the preferred food of the crown-of-thorns starfish and badly hit by bleaching, disease and storms, but recovery can be fast if conditions are suitable. 182 known species. Location: This genus dominates most of the upper reef slopes where the water is clear and shallow. Lifeforms: Branching, Tabulate, Digitate, are the most abundant, and encrusting or Submassive are rarer. Appearance: Small, separate corallites (quite cylindrical); 2 types: axial and radial. Polyps are usually extended only at night. Rapidly growing branch tips are usually pale-coloured because the algae have not had time to saturate the newly forming tissue of the polyp. Juvenile or encrusting colonies may not have an axial corallite. They can be identified by the appearance of radial corallites; small and cylindrical with a very small calice. Species example: Acropora formosa ASTREOPORA Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting, Foliose. Appearance:Corallites are cavernous and conical with short, numerous, neatly spaced and disjointed costa (dashes). The corallites are of varying sizes as if some have grown faster than others. 1-4mm in diameter. Columellae are deep-seated and compact with large, page11 of 59

12 rounded calices. Foliose colonies are bifacial. Polyps are extended only at night. In juvenile colonies the corallites may be quite small, but the calices are still large in comparison. Species example:astreopora myriophthalma MONTIPORA Background: Second-largest coral genus in terms of species, but a lot of the species are inconspicuous. Lifeforms: Submassive, Foliose, Branching, Encrusting Appearance: Corallites are the smallest of all corals and appear almost structureless. Random ridges and bumps with corallites nestled between. Calices are about 0.5mm in diameter and often widely spaced. Very bumpy. Polyps are usually extended only at night. Species example:montipora verrucosa Family: Pocilloporidae Genus: o Background: Pocilloporids (along with Acropora) are early colonisers to denuded reefs. They are amongst the most common corals. o Location: Common and abound on healthy upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action, also found in deep water and in lagoons. o Lifeforms: Submassive, Branching. o Appearance: Corallites are immersed to conical, small, have well developed columellae and neatly arranged septa. In high-energy environments, colonies tend to be small with thick, stubby branches, however in deeper more sheltered water, branches are thinner and more open. POCILLOPORA Background: Pocillopora are hardy, widespread and common. Lifeforms: Branching, Submassive. Appearance:Colonies covered with wart-like growth/nodules, called verrucae. Corallites are immersed with calices of 0.5-1mm in diameter and appear as dark spots on the verrucae and coenosteum. Polyps are usually only extended at night. Species example: Pocillopora verrucosa STYLOPHORA Background: Colonies branching, without verrucae. Widely distributed because one species Stylophora pistillata grows everywhere, even on drift wood and spawn en route. Lifeforms: Branching, Submassive. Location: Found on the reef flats and lagoons. page12 of 59

13 Appearance: Branches with blunt ends becoming thick and submassive. Coenosteum is quite rough due to the corallites being hooded. These hoods arch over the edge of the corallites. Corallites are about 0.5mm in diameter. Polyps are only extended at night. Species example: Stylophora subseriata SERIATOPORA Background: Colonies branching, without verrucae. Lifeforms: Branching. Branches fine and smooth often with tapering tips. Location: Found on reef flats and lagoons. Appearance: Corallites in obvious neat rows along branches, corallites sometimes appear like black dots. Calices are mm in diameter. Colonies form compact bushes. Branches about 5mm in diameter. Polyps are only extended at night. Remarkable modifications can be made by gall-crabs; these resemble clasped hands at the end of the branch tips where the female lives. Species example: Seriatopora hystrix Family: Poritidae Genus: o Background: This family includes some of the most important reef-building corals. o Lifeforms:Massive, Submassive, Branching, Foliose, Encrusting. o Appearance: Corallites have a wide size range but are usually compacted with little or no coenosteum. PORITES Background: Very small corallites. Nevertheless they form some of the largest of all coral colonies, some near-spherical giants reaching 8m in height. With average rates of about 9mm per year, such colonies may be nearly 1,000 years old, among the oldest of all forms of animal life. LIfeforms: Massive, Encrusting, Submassive, Foliose, Branching. Appearance: Corallites are small, hexagonal, immersed, with calices less than 2mm in diameter and filled with septa. Corallites share walls. Looks smooth and appears solid. Polyps are usually extended only at night. Polyps hardly emerge from the corallites. Christmas tree worms mainly live in Porites sp. Species example: Porites lutea or Porites cylindrical GONIOPORA Background: Colonies may be many meters across. Generally aggressive corals. They do not have sweeper tentacles but polyps sometimes become enormously extended (over 40cm) page13 of 59

14 and attack any other coral within reach. Therefore it is unusual to see other corals growing up close to a Goniopora species in a natural situation. Colonies have separate sexes. Location: Most commonly found in turbid water protected from strong wave action. Lifeforms: Mainly Submassive or Massive, sometimes Encrusting. Appearance: Individual polyps are long and fleshy, are normally extended day and night. They have 24 tentacles at the end of each polyp. Calices are rounded to hexagonal and 1-5mm in diameter. Different species have polyps of different shapes and colours. Polyps retract promptly if disturbed; wafting the colony with your hand will cause the polyps to retract showing the skeleton. Very similar to Alveopora which only has 12 tentacles. Species example:goniopora lobata ALVEOPORA Background: Very similar to Goniopora in behaviour and appearance but Alveopora only have 12 tentacles. Location: Uncommon and occurrence on the reef is unpredictable. Different species like different habitats, e.g. turbid water protected from wave action or clear water on reef slopes. Lifeform: Mainly Submassive or Massive, sometimes Encrusting. Appearance:Individual polyps are large and fleshy and are normally extended day and night. Each polyp has 12 tentacles that often have swollen knob-like tips. Calices are rounded or hexagonal. Polyps retract promptly if disturbed. The nervous stimulation that causes retraction is transmitted to neighbouring polyps and this wave of contraction usually spreads over the whole colony. Species example:alveopora allingi Family: Oculinidae Genus: o Appearance: Each polyp is a circle of delicate sabre-like septa surrounded by an outer circle of softly coloured translucent tentacles, which usually have white tips. Corallites are solid walled tubes linked together by smooth solid coenosteum. GALAXEA Background: Colonies may be of enormous size and usually vary in shape according to local conditions, and sometimes boring organisms. Location: Thrives in turbid water, especially around inshore fringing reefs. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Submassive, Massive. Appearance: Corallites are distinct and rise at least 2mm or more; tubular corallites. Each corallite has a diameter from 1.5-8mm and are about 2-3mm apart. Septa are strongly exsert and if wafted nothing will retract. Columallae are weak or absent. page14 of 59

15 Species example:galaxea fascilularis Family: Euphyllidae Genus: o Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting. o Appearance: Widely spaced septa. Corallite walls are of similar structure. PHYSOGYRA Background: (physa= air bubble + gyrus= circle). Common in protected habitats, such as crevises and overhangs. Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting. Appearance: Difficult to see the skeleton, which is mostly constructed of thin blade-like plates. Septa are prominent and smooth edged. The corals are covered by a mat of swollen bubble-shaped vesicles and pointed tentacles. Tentacles extended during the day and can be retracted fairly readily if disturbed. Vesicles do not retract readily. Closely packed and not as large as other genera in this family. Species example:physogyra lichtensteini Family: Dendrophylliidae Genus: o Lifeforms: Submassive, Foliose, Encrusting. o Appearance: Corallites are prominent and well-spaced with a smooth coenosteum. TURBINARIA Background: Among the most varied of all corals. Location: Generally common in a wide range of habitats and may form conspicuous colonies several metres in diameter. Lifeforms: Submassive, Foliose, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are round, immersed to tubular. Rounded corallites are separated from each other and distinct and may be bifacial or unifacial. They often protrude 1-15mm, the corallites are usually 1.5-3mm in diameter with wide walls. Polyps, except for those of page15 of 59

16 Turbinaria peltata, are usually extended only at night. No granules or bumps between on the coenosteum; smooth. Quite well spaced corallites. Species example:turbinaria peltata Family: Siderastreidae Genus: WORKSHOP 2 o Background: Regular star-like arrangement of the calices and septa. Corallites have poorly defined walls formed by thickening of the septo-costae. SIDERASTREA Background: Uncommon Lifeforms: Colonies are usually Massive or Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are crowded, regular and have shared walls. They are rounded or geometric and deep with a diameter of 2-4mm. Septa are clearly visible as fine lines that fuse into fan like groups towards the columella; they have fine saw like teeth. Species example: Siderastrea savignyana PSEUDOSIDERASTREA Background: Uncommon. Lifeforms: Colonies are Encrusting to Massive. Appearance: Corallites share gently sloping walls, are 3-6mm in diameter and are usually uniform brown in colour. Septa are evenly spaced, closely packed and orientate down towards a tiny columella, fusing into fan-like groups. They have fine, saw-like teeth and acute edges. Species example: Psammacora digitata PSAMMOCORA Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Foliose, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are very small and shallow. Walls are indistinct. Hard to tell where corallites are. Calices are closely packed measuring about 1-2mm in diameter. Septa are closely packed and visible as thin lines running between adjacent calices. Polyps are usually only extended at night. Species example:psammocora digitata page16 of 59

17 COSCINARAEA Lifeform: Massive, Sub massive and Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites form short valleys or irregularly shattered, walls are shared and are flattened off giving sanded appearance, colour change between tops of walls and septa of corallites, fan like septa run from center of corallites to tops of walls. Species example: Coscinaraea monile Family: Mussidae Genus: o Background: Skeletal structures are solid. o Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting, Submassive. o Appearance: Corallites and valleys are large. Usually recognised easily; they have heavily constructed skeletons with large teeth or lobes on the septa. Polyps are usually thick, fleshy and colourful. The polyps often obscure the skeletal structure. Polyps are extended at night. LOBOPHYLLIA Background: By far the most common Mussid. Usually found on all but the most exposed reef slopes. Lifeforms: Submassive, Encrusting, Massive. Appearance: Colonies are phaceloid to flabello-meandroid. Corallites are 1-4cm in diameter but may be larger and are separated by a gap of 0.5-2cm. Each corallite makes a complete lobe. Septa are large with very long teeth. Polyps are only extended at night. Tentacles usually have white tips. Corallites are at the end of long columns. The stalks vary in length; up to 20cm or more. Fleshy in appearance. Species example: Lobophyllia hemprichii ACANTHASTREA Background: Only one common Acanthastrea species on most tropical reefs. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Colonies are ceroid to sub-plocoid. Corallites have thick, fleshy polyps which obscure the underlying skeletal structure. The walls are fleshy and covered in pinnules. Corallites are either circular or angular in shape. Polyps are thick-walled and are extended only at night. More colourful than other mussids. Species example: Acanthastrea echinata page17 of 59

18 BLASTOMUSSA Background: Uncommon Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Septa slope gently to the corallite centre and have lobed teeth. Tentacles have fleshy mantles extended during the day often forming a continuous cover, obliterating the colony structure underneath. Septa usually occur in two cycles with only one reaching the poorly developed columella. Polyps are only extended at night. Species example:blastomussa merleti SYMPHYLLIA Background: Fairly common with some species having the largest valleys of all corals. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Massive. Appearance: Colonies are meandroid and either flat or dome shaped. Walls are thick and fleshy with a pronounced ridge that runs along the top of the walls. Septa are large with long teeth (similar to Lobophyllia). Valleys are wide. The corallites run along the valleys but the ridges are more obvious and will be what you notice. Species example:symphillia radians Family: Fungiidae o Background: generally free-living (unattached) corals founds on reefs are fungiids. Some genera are attached as juveniles. Common. Known as mushroom corals. At least partially mobile. Often removed by divers. o Lifeforms: Mushroom, Encrusting, Foliose. o Appearance: Corallites are among the largest of all corals. Septo-costae radiate from the mouth on the upper surface (as septa) and from the centre of the under surface (as costae). Genus: FUNGIA Background: (fungus = mushroom). Most abundant and widespread of the Fungiids. Location: Usually found below the depth of strong wave action. They are expecially common on the slopes of fringing reefs, many species can be found together. Lifeforms: Mushroom, Encrusting. Appearance: Short tapering tentacles, which are widely spaced. They are usually extended only at night and are readily retracted if disturbed. All species have wide slit-like mouths. Septa have large or small pointed teeth which give a serrated appearance. Sometimes raised in the middle. Oval or elongated. Juveniles are encrusting until they detach from substrate and become free living. Species example:fungia danai page18 of 59

19 HERPOLITHA Background: Colonies may be larger than 50cm and become very heavily calcified. The heaviest of all the free-living corals. Lifeforms: Mushroom. Appearance: Elongate, with an axial furrow that may extend at night. Septa are discontinuous and alternate. Sometimes Y shaped. Species example:herpolitha limax CYCLOSERIS Background: (kyklos = circle, seris = lettuce). Free-living. Can right and uncover themselves. Seldom found in any habitat other than on flat sandy substrates between reefs. Only one common species. Lifeforms: Mushroom. Appearance: Flat or dome-shaped, circular or slightly oval in outline, with a central mouth. Fairly small; about 10cm. Smaller species are flat, larger ones are domed. Septa are thick with fine teeth, but look smooth, thicker thanfungia and fewer teeth. Polyps are usually extended only at night. Species example:cycloseris cyclolites DIASERIS Background: Free-living. Uncommon but where it does occur, it does so in large numbers, either spread over the ocean floor or aggregated in patches. Usually found on flat sandy substrates between reefs. Lifeforms: Mushroom. Appearance:Discs, flat composed of several fan-shaped segments, with a mouth situated at the point of divergence of the segments. Reaches about 6cm in diameter. Septa are thick with blunt teeth resembling rows of granules. Species example: Diaseris fragilis PODABACIA Background: Colonies are attached. Found in most reef habitats but is seldom abundant. Lifeforms: Mushroom, Encrusting, Foliose (unifacial). Appearance:Attached by a base and grows upwards in a strong plate-like or foliose fashion. A central corallite is sometimes distinguishable. Calices measure 3-5mm in diameter and may be inclined towards the outer plate margin of the colony. Polyps may be extended day or night. Species example: Podabacia crustacean HALOMITRA Lifeform: Mushroom page19 of 59

20 Appearance: Flat, domed or bell shaped, no axial furrow, septa radiate out from center having jagged appearance similar to fungia, colouration pale brown with light pink to purple margin, corallites often white forming concentric rings running towards edge of colony. Species example:halomitra pileus POLYPHYLLIA Lifeform: Mushroom Appearance: Colony elongated with high arch, usally extends long tenticles during the day, grey greenish or cream with distinct circular white tips to end of tenticles. Species example: Polyphyllia novaehiberniae Family Astrocoeniidae WORKSHOP 3 o Background: Small family which is made up of fossil corals. Genus: STYLOCOENIELLA Background: Little is known about this genus. Lifeforms: Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are immersed, circular with irregular pimples. The coenosteum is covered with large pointed coenosteum styles which are almost as numerous as the corallites. Often dark in colour. Species example:stylocoeniella armata Family Agariciidae o Background: Early colonisers following environmental disturbances. o Location: Mostly uncommon on reef flats or slopes exposed to wave action, but are often found on protected reefs slopes and are common in lagoons. o Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting, Foliose. o Appearance: Agariciids have very fine tentacles that are seldom extended during the day. Corallites are immersed with poorly defined walls formed by thickening of septo-costae. Septa are continuous between adjacent corallite centres. They are closely packed. Genus: LEPTOSERIS Background: They are usually uncommon. page20 of 59

21 Location: Found in shaded parts of the reef, such as overhangs and caves. Lifeforms: Foliose, Encrusting. Appearance: Most species have a delicate leafy appearance, usually unifacial: corallites just on one side of the leaf. Corallites have poorly defined walls. They are small shallow depressions with a central columella, usually separated by ridges and interconnected y fine septo-costae. Calices are 2-5mm in diameter. Corallites are more widely spaced than Pavona. Species example: Leptoseris mycetoseroides PAVONA Background: Can be divided into 2 groups; leafy species and non-leafy species. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting, Foliose. Appearance: The leafy species can be distinguished from Leptoseris by the fact that the corallites are on both sides;bifacial. Additionally, corallites are more tightly packed than for Leptoseris. Corallites are interconnected by prominent septo-costae. Can form very large colonies. Immersed calices are round, polygonal or oval and 2-3mm in diameter. Species example:pavona decussate PACHYSERIS Lifeforms: Colonies are Foliose and unifacial, to Branching and bifacial. Location: Occur in areas such as the edges of surge channels. Appearance: Branches are usually highly contorted. The surface is a series of concentric ridges parallel with the margins. Distance from mid-range is usually 3mm. Septo-costae are fine, even, compacted and run perpendicular to the ridges. Corallites lie in the valleys. Colonies look very neat, regular or geometric. Extended polyps have never been observed day or night. Species example:pachyseris speciosa COELOSERIS Lifeforms: Massive. Appearance: Colonies are either rounded or hillocky. Corallites share walls and do not have columellae. Looks like the septo-costae join together from one edge of the corallite to the other. The septa are evenly spaced with a slight gap between them. The tops of the walls are rather flattened. Calices are 2-5mm in diameter. Septa are easy to see, not too many crammed in; they are neat and look sharp. Polyps extended only at night. Species example:coeloseris mayeri GARDINEROSERIS Location: Likes walls and under overhangs in clear water. Lifeforms: Colonies are Massive to Encrusting, sometimes with Foliose margins. Appearance: Corallites have poorly defined walls but are separated by acute ridges so that each corallite or group of corallites is at the bottom of a neat excavation. The walls are several mm high. Septa run from one calice to the next and are fine and even in size. Polyps are rarely extended and only at night. Species example:gardineroseris planulata page21 of 59

22 Family Pectiniidae o Lifeforms: Foliose, Encrusting, Submassive. o Appearance: Polyps are thick, fleshy and usually colourful. Polyps only extended at night. Corallites do not have definite walls. Genus: ECHINOPHYLLIA Lifeforms: Encrusting, Foliose, Submassive. Appearance: Calices are round or oval in shape, immersed or tubular. Septa are numerous. Corallites are scattered in a pattern of concentric rows, are prominent and often separated by a gap of several mm or more. Corallites may be elevated several mm above the surface. They are not strongly inclined towards the outer margins and the coenosteum is pitted at the commencement of new septo-costae. Polyps are only extended at night. Species example:echinopyllia aspera MYCEDIUM Background: A common and fairly unique species. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Foliose. Appearance:Corallites are strongly inclined towards the corals edge. Corallites are well spaced, crowded in places with diameters ranging 5-15mm; sometimes they protrude 3-4mm from the surface. Costae are perpendicular to the margins and run all the way to the edges. Species example:mycedium elephantotus PECTINIA Lifeforms: Foliose, Submassive. Appearance: Colonies have valleys with high thin walls of a uniform height (up to 5cm high and a few mm wide). Valleys are often as short as they are wide. Most valleys can be traced from the colony margins to the centre. Corallites are generally very small and widely spaced over the coral surface. There is little or no columella. Poylps are rarely extended. Species example:pectinia lactuca Family Merulinidae o Lifeforms: Branching, Foliose, Encrusting, Submassive, Massive. o Appearance: Genus have own distinguishable characteristics. Genus: HYDNOPHORA page22 of 59

23 Background: Easily distinguishable from all others by the conical hydnophores that cover the colony surface. Common. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting, Branching. Appearance:Presence of hydnophores formed where sections of common wall between corallites intersect and develop into conical mounds. Polyps are usually extended at night (except for a couple of species). Chiselled appearance. Species example:hydnophora exesa MERULINA Lifeforms: Foliose or Branching. Often different growth forms in one colony. Appearance: Horizontal and vertical plates. Valleys are short, straight and spread fanwise then divide. Septa are closely packed. They radiate from the colony centre on flat surfaces but are highy contorted on branches. Flat surfaces often have concentric growth lines. This coral has a variety of pale colours, usually pink or pale brown. Species example:merulina ampliata WORKSHOP 4 Family Faviidae o Background: Faviidae is the biggest in terms of number of genus and ranks next to Acroporidae in number of species and overall abundance in most reef habitats throughout the Indo-Pacific. Colonies range from massive domes several metres in diameter to inconcspicuous fist-sized growths. o Lifeforms: Massive, Branching, Foliose, Encrusting, Submassive. o Appearance: Corallites are separated in some species, but in others they are joined to form valleys. Septa, paliform lobes, columellae and wall structures, when present, all appear to be structurally similar. Septa structures are simple, and walls are composed of thickened septa. Genus: MONTASTREA Background: Daughter corallites are predominantly formed by extratentacular budding. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are plocoid (polyps have separate walls) and monocentric. Corallites are circular and separated from others by a slight gap. Corallites are elevated and are about 6-8mm in diameter. Paliform lobes are usually formed at the inner ends of the septa. Like Favia but septa are more defined and sharper looking. Species example:montastrea serageldini FAVIA page23 of 59

24 Background: The Favia species are the most common corals found in shallow-water communities that are not dominated by Acropora. Strictly night-time feeders. Reproduction is predominantly done by intratentacular division (fission). Location: Communities are found on different types of reef flats and also around fringing reefs and similar places where water is often turbid. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Each corallite projects slightly above the colony surface but not as much as Monostrea and has its own wall. Separate walls give the impression of there being a valley between each corallite, slight gap or groove. Septa are typically even in size and shape. The columella is often a different colour than the wall. Reproduces by intratentacular reproduction. Species example: Favia speciosa FAVITES Background: Feed at night and are similar to Favia. Location: Common in shallow-water habitats, especially some reef flats and fringing reefs where the water is often fluid. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Adjacent corallites share common walls. Paliform lobes are absent or poorly developed. Corallites are typically similarly sized with septa that are even in size and shape. The columella often has a different colour than the wall. Species example:favites halicora ECHINOPORA Location: Occur in a wide range of environments. Lifeforms: Foliose, Branching, Submassive, Encrusting or a mixture. Widely varying growth forms. Encrusting plates may develop branches and these may develop more plates higher up. Appearance: Corallites are distinct and plocoid (separated by several mm), 2-7mm in diameter. Corallites may be irregularly spaced. Septo-costae are granulated and run in rows perpendicular to the margins, reaching all the way to the corals edge. Species example:echinopora lamellose DIPLOASTREA Background: Only one, very recognisable species; Diploastrea heliopora. Dense skeleton seldom penetrated by boring organisms or grazed by fish. Even the Crown-of-Thorns starfish is reluctant to feed on it, which may be why colonies may attain large sizes, larger than any other Faviid. Shallow to medium depths common. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Massive. Appearance: Polyp cups form projecting, tapering cones about 1cm in diameter, with radiating ridges on their sides. Polyp cups are not separated, but they are quite regular and geometric with large columella. No other species has the radiating ridges on the polyp cone. Species example:diploastrea heliopora CYPHASTREA Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. page24 of 59

25 Appearance: Corallites have their own walls, with calices less than 3cm in diameter and slightly elevated by less than 3mm. Prominent costa occurs just on corallite walls. Coenosteum between raised circular corallites is covered with random granules. Species example:cyphastrea serallia PLESIASTREA Background: Occurs in most reef environments. Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are rounded and plocoid with paliform lobes. The corallites do not extend high off the coenosteum and are irregularly spaced and sized, however they are typically very small<3mm. Species example:plesiastrea versiposa LEPTORIA Background: Often called brain coral. Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting. Appearance: Septa have a neat orderly arrangement, are uniformly spaced plus equal size. Mid-ridge to mid-ridge distance seldom less than 3mm or more than 5mm. Ridges 2-3mm deep and run parallel to each other, but they can also form complex masses. It is hard to find the end of the valleys, plus valleys are often thinner than Oulophyllia and Platygyra. Species example: Leptoria phrygia PLATYGYRA Background: Often called brain coral. Location: Commonly found on upper reef slopes, back reef margins and on reef flats. Lifeforms: Massive, Submassive, Encrusting. Appearance: Corallites are rarely ceroid, commonly merandroid. U-shaped valleys. Valleys are about 3-9mm wide. Septa are exerted by several mm with sharp and ragged margins. Similar to Oulophyllia and Leptoria. Shallower and longer valleys than Oulophyllia: higher, sharper walls and shorter length valleys than Leptoria. Valleys and ridges are different colours (usually brown or green). Species example:platygyra daedalea OULOPHYLLIA Background:Often called brain coral, but not as much as pervious 2 genera. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Massive. Appearance: Colonies are monocentric to meandroid, composed of large valleys with widely spaced septa. Paliform lobes are usually present. Short discontinuous meandering valleys deeper and broader than Platygyra and Leptoria. Mid-ridge to mid-ridge distance is about 1-2cm. Depth of the valleys ranges from 5-10mm. Septa are slightly exert. Species example:oulophyllia crispa LEPTASTREA Lifeforms: Massive, Encrusting. page25 of 59

26 Appearance: Costae are poorly developed or absent. Septa have inward-projecting teeth which vary in size and width. Has rough/spiky appearance. Corallites are closely packed yet can be irregularly spaced. Species example:leptastrea purpurea GONIASTREA Background: Goniastrea species are very commonly found on inter-tidal flats of fringing reefs. They are very tough corals. Lifeforms: Encrusting, Submassive, Massive. Appearance: All species have corallites with a regular neat appearance. Corallites are crowded with shared walls. The paliform lobes are well developed. In ceroid colonies, calices are 3.5mm in diameter and 4 to 6 sided. Meandroid colonies may occur. Septa clearly alternate and are thin. Species example: Goniastrea retiformis 1.5 Coral Glossary Ahermatypic without symbiotic algae (zooxanthallae); non reef building. Axial corallite the corallite that runs down the centre (or axis) of a branch, forming the branch tip. Almost always seen in Acropora spp. Axial furrow the groove along the top of Fungiid corals. Bifacial corallites occur on both sides of a leaf-like structure (i.e. foliose corals). Calice the opening of the corallite, bounded by the wall. Ceroid a type of colony formation where polyps share common walls. Coenosarc thin layer of tissue running over the coenosteum, connecting neighbouring polyps. Coenosteum the skeletal matrix around corallites. Columellae skeletal structures at the centre of corallites. Coral polyp an animal composed of fleshy tissues and a skeleton. The body is tube shaped, closed at one end, with a mouth encircled by tentacles at the other end. Corallite the skeleton of an individual polyp. Corallium the skeleton of a coral. Costae radial elements of corallites situated outside the corallite wall. Cycles of septa radial elements occurring in set sequences of size (i.e. 6 primary, 6 secondary, 12 tertiary etc.) Exsert projecting above the surrounding structure. Flabello-meandroid colony formation where valleys are elongate and have separate walls from other valleys. Free-living corals not attached to the substrate (i.e. Fungia). Immersed corallite do not protrude from the coenosteum; imbedded in the coenostem. Hermatypic with symbiotic algae (zooxanthallae) present in the polyp tissue; reef building. Hydnophores conical structures on the coenosteum. Mantle fleshy disc extended by certain species when tentacles are retracted. Meandroid colony formation where polyps form valleys. Monocentric with one columella centre per corallite. Paliform lobes large, vertical teeth situation above the inner margin of septa. Pinnules small spiky projections. page26 of 59

27 Phaceloid corallites or uniform height which are connected at the base of their skeletal tubes (i.e. Galaxea) Plocoid Corallites have their own walls. Radial Corallites corallites situated on the sides of branches as opposed to axial corallites that run down the centre of branches. A term typically used in defining Acropora. Septa radial elements of corallites situated inside the corallite wall. Septo-costae radial elements of corallites. No clear wall may be present separating the septa from the costa. Styles or Spinules tiny to small spines on the coenosteum. Unifacial corallites occur on one side of a leaf like structure (i.e. foliose corals). Verrucae mounds on the coenosteum that are larger than the corallites, as seen in Pocillopora. Vesicles water filled bubbles covering the surface of the colony, which hide the skeletal structures underneath. 1.6 Substrate, Benthic Organisms and Algal Types Dead Coral = Any area of hard bare substratum with visible corallite structure, this is recently dead and will be white to dirty white. Dead Coral with Algal = Any area of hard bare substratum with visible corallites structure covered in algae. This coral is still standing and intact, the skeletal structure can still be seen under the algae. Heliopora (Blue Coral) = Blue coral is in the octocorallia subclass. The outer surface is relatively similar to fire coral, minus the hairs. Internally the skeleton is blue. Colonies form vertical plates/ columns grey green with tiny white polyps. Millipora (Fire Coral) = Mustard colour with a white edge. The colony is covered in tiny, hairlike polyps that extend through thousands of pinhole-sized pores. They have powerful nematocysts on the tentacles of the tiny polyps. Tubipora (Organ Pipe Coral) = (Tubipora musica) Subclass of Octocorallia. Can often be confused with flower soft corals. Organ pipe corals have a hard (red) skeleton with tiers of organ pipe like tubes. Each tube contains a polyp with 8 feathery-like tentacles. They will quickly retract into their skeleton when disturbed and the red skeleton can be observed. Wafting will help with identification. Soft Corals = Soft corals do not secrete an outer skeleton but have an internal one consisting of numerous small calcerous (limestone) particles called sclerites embedded in the coral s fleshy tissue. These give the body support but allow it to remain soft and flexible. Colonies are made up of a large number of identical polyps connected by the fleshy tissue. Each polyp has 8 feathery tentacles that are concealed within the fleshy body when retracted. Most contain zooxanthallae. Different lifeforms: Tree, Deadman s fingers, Leather, Pulsing, Flower. Sponges = Sponges have the least complex body structure of all multi-celled creatures. They are immobile and their surface is covered with tiny pores through which water is drawn for feeding and respiration. There is an amazing diversity in colours and lifeforms of sponges. The best way to identify organisms as sponges is to learn the different lifeforms that they grow in: Barrel: look like open top barrels, with brownish exterior surface that is rough. Mainly on the outer forereef near the drop-off. More common in the Carribean. They can page27 of 59

28 get very large. Tube: generally found in a cluster of tubes joined together at the base. Relatively smooth exterior and a broad colour range. Vase: narrow at the base and wide at the excurrent opening with thin, stiff walls that are rough in texture. Branching: cluster of tube-like structures that are joined together and branch from the base. Encrusting: follows the contours of the substrate to which it is attached. It has numerous small excurrents and incurrent pores that frequently occur in distinct patterns (veins). Rope: Long thin branching and erect. Have rows of pores on close inspection. Can be confused with sea rods. Elephant ear: fan-shaped upright sponge. Lumpy: has no distinct shape and does not fall in any of the other categories. Zoanthids = They are in the hexocorallia subclass. Often referred to as carpeting anemones but they are typically smaller and colonial. Each individual polyp is interconnected by tubelike structures. They incorporate some debris from surrounding area into their body walls to make it more substantial and give support. They come in many forms and the two main ones are either as discs or in encrusting forms. When wafted each polyp will close like eyelids shutting. Corallimorphs = Also in the hexacorallia subclass. They are flattened disc-shaped animals which resemble anemones. The upper surface is covered with a bed of tiny tentacles. Other = This category includes: Tunicates/Ascidians/Sea Squirts, Bryozoans, Clams, (see above). Also anemones: Solitary organisms, commonly attached to the hard substrate by a sticky pad on their base, and they have many tentacles around their mouth. Plus Gorgonians: 8 feathery tentacles like soft corals but have a rod-like central core and fused spicules that give them their strong, flexible stem, attached to the substrate by a single holdfast base; includes sea rods, sea whips, sea plumes, and sea fans. Algae: Algae Assemblage = This consists of more than one species of algae. Algae: Coralline Algae = This is usually red coralline algae and encrusts over the rocks and helps cement the reef together. Algae: Halimeda = Halimeda algae are frequently the most conspicuous species plants on the coral reefs. Individual plants consist of branching chains of flattened or cylindrical, leaflike brittle segments. This is a green calcified algae. Algae: Macroalgae = Weedy/fleshy browns, reds, etc. This includes e.g. the brown fleshy algae Lobophora, Padina, Sargassum, Turbinaria and the red/brown branching algae e.g. Dictyota, Galaxaura, Amphiroa, Jania. Algae: Turf Algae = Lush filamentous algae, often found inside damselfish territories. Abiotic: Sand = Coarse sediment (diameter > 1mm). Grainy when disturbed. Abiotic: Rubble = Any area of loose bedrock or hard substratum, unconsolidated coral fragments. Abiotic: Silt = Fine sediment (diameter <1mm). Milky when disturbed. Abiotic: Water = Fissures deeper than 50cm. When laying the tape there may well be areas which fall away, like crevises where the tape will not be laid, this would be recorded as water. Abiotic: Rock = Any exposed area of hard, bare substratum without visible coralline structures. The rock within many of the areas being surveyed is granite. Other (missing data)= This will be used if there has been any unaccounted for areas along the tape. page28 of 59

29 1.7 Reference List Allen, G.R & Steene, R. (1994).Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Guide, Tropical Reef Research, Singapore Veron, J.E.N. (2002) Corals of the World, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia. Veron J.E.N. (1986) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific, Angus and Robertson Publishers, North Ryde, Australia. Family Genus Allen + Steele (1994) Veron (2002) Veron (1986) Acroporidae Pocilloporidae Poritidae Acropora Vol I : Astreopora 75 Vol I : Montipora Vol I : Pocillopora 67 Vol II : Stylophora 68 Vol II : Seriatopora 68 Vol II : Porites 76 Vol III : Goniopora 77 Vol III : Alveopora Vol III : Oculinidae Galaxea 85 Vol II : Euphyllidae Physogyra 97 Vol II : page29 of 59

30 Dendrophyllidae Turbinaria 98 Vol II : Siderastreidae Mussidae Siderastrea Vol II : Pseudosiderastrea Vol II : Psammocora 79 Vol II : Coscinaraea 79 Vol II : Lobophyllia Vol III : Acanthastrea Vol III : Blastomussa 87 Vol III : Symphyllia 88 Vol III : Fungiidae Fungia Vol II : Herpolitha 84 Vol II : Cycloseris 83 Vol II : Diaseris 83 Vol II : Podabacia 85 Vol : Polyphyllia Vol II : Halomitra 84 Vol : Astrocoeniidae Stylocoeniella Vol II : Agariciidae Pectiniidae Merulinidae Leptoseris 81 Vol II : Pavona Vol II : Pachyseris 82 Vol II : Coeloseris Vol II : Gardineroseris 81 Vol II : Echinophyllia 86 Vol II : Mycedium 86 Vol II : Pectinia 86 Vol II : Hydnophora 89 Vol II : Merulina 89 Vol II : page30 of 59

31 Faviidae Montastrea Vol III : Favia 90 Vol III : Favites 91 Vol III : Echinopora Vol III : Diploastrea 94 Vol III : Cyphastrea 94 Vol III : Plesiastrea Vol III : Leptoria 93 Vol III : Platygyra Vol III : Oulophyllia 93 Vol III : Leptastrea Vol III : Goniastrea Vol III : Fish Section This guide serves to introduce some of the main fish families that we monitor. The main families are included in some detail, and the smaller families will be taught to you when you arrive. Please read through the training manual and begin learning the fish species before your arrival in Seychelles. The staff on base will go through everything again in more detail, and you will receive presentations and lectures on the fish, including any local variations present in the Seychelles. A basic knowledge will be easier to quickly build upon when you arrive, than if everything is new to you. The following is an introduction to the main fish families you will be studying, and a list of the species you need to know within each family. Common names for fish vary from place to place so please learn the common names on this list rather than those in the books. The same Latin name is always used for the same fish, no matter where in the world you are, so they are useful for reference but don t worry about learning them. The three columns on the right of each species list are abbreviations of the three main books we use, details of which can be found in the recommended reading list at the end of this training manual. The best way to learn fish is to start with their general anatomy, as described in the first section of this guide. The second section gives details on the particular anatomical features of each family. After you are familiar with the basics of each family, use this guide, along with whichever book is available to you to start learning the individual species. 2.1 Introduction (Survey Methodology Guide) page31 of 59

32 Fish surveys are run throughout the year at GVI Seychelles with each site monitored twice both using the same methodology and species list. Aims : To survey reef and commercial fish species in Seychelles coastal waters To build a picture of reef ecosystem health and diversity To analyze the population densities of commercial fish species to monitor fishing pressure. Two different survey techniques are used to undertake reef fish monitoring, the data from both techniques are analysed to give an overall picture of fish species population densities across the survey sites. The methodology is split in two and both are employed at each site. Stationary Point Count survey The first is a 7m stationary point count, where the divers, in a buddy pair, will lay a 7m survey tape out across the reef. This is the radius of the point count and any fish within the circle (of radius 7m), are recorded over a period of 7 minutes. During the last minute of the survey both divers swim around the circle so to ensure that any hidden fish are counted. Each diver in the buddy pair is required to count different species of fish to allow all to be covered. 8 stationary point counts are required at each survey site. Belt Transect survey The belt transit survey is a 50m survey tape laid out parallel to the reef. All fish within a 5m band width of the tape are recorded. As with the stationary point count, each diver in the buddy pair is required to count different species of fish. So as not to disturb the fish prior to counting, one of the buddy pair surveys the fish as the tape is laid down by the other diver in the buddy pair. As the tape is reeled back in the second diver records their species group along the 50m tape. Two transect belts are completed per survey site; one in the deep and one in the shallow depth range. Volunteer s responsibilities: page32 of 59

33 All volunteers studying fish will be asked to complete a number of survey sites, collecting all relevant data on fish population densities and invertebrate surveys, which will then be transferred onto the partners of GVI in Seychelles. Whilst at GVI Seychelles expedition members must learn all of the fish surveyed to family, genus or species where required, along with invertebrate species surveyed. Members must pass appropriate assessments on knowledge, underwater identification and survey methodology. This is achieved through the use of this expedition training manual, presentations and lectures on surveyed species in the field, in-water guided dives and terrestrial and in-water methodology practices. 2.2 Basic Fish Anatomy Learning the basic anatomical features of each fish family is important to be able to distinguish between similar looking families, such as Emperors and Snappers, and essential for telling apart the different species within those families. When you read the section detailing with the families themselves, refer back to this section for an explanation of the anatomical terms used. Fins: may be raised or lowered. Used for propulsion and streamlining. Caudal; the tail fin.can be forked with two lobes, notched or have a straight border. The border is the edge running along the end of the fin, and the margins are the upper and lower edges of the fin. Dorsal; the fin along the back. Can be continuous or two part, with a fore-dorsal (usually spiny, with membranes between each dorsal spine) and a rear dorsal (normally soft-looking and flexible). Anal; the fin running along the underside of the body, from below the caudal fin, towards the ventral fins. Ventral; a pair of fins on the front underside of the belly. Pectoral; one on either side, just behind the gill cover. page33 of 59

34 Body parts: some body parts have the name that you would expect the eye, mouth, underside and cheek but some have more specialised names. Caudal Peduncle; the region where the caudal fin attaches to the body.the thinnest part of the fish. Gill Cover; behind the cheek, a plate of hard scales that covers the gills which can be opened, or flattened against the body. The area in front of this is the head, and behind is the body. Mouth; may be terminal (at the very front), or the snout may protrude above, or the chin below it. Nape; the forehead. Lateral line; a line, especially obvious in silver fish, which extends from the top of the gill cover to the upper region of the caudal peduncle. Markings: like a chameleon, some fish are able to rapidly change their markings. This is called crypsis, and can make it difficult to use markings to reliably identify fish with this ability. You will learn more about this when you arrive on base. However, the vast majority of fish have at least some markings that will help identify them to species level. Stripes; thick horizontal markings. Bars; thick vertical markings. Bands; thick diagonal markings. Lines; thin markings of any orientation. Spots; large, circular marking. Speckles; small, circular marking. Blotches; markings with no defined pattern. Scales; regular speckled pattern, with one speckle on each scale. Saddles; wide markings along the upper area of the fish, which taper into points resembling triangles, pointing down. page34 of 59

35 2.3 Fish Family Identification Guide Butterflyfish (Chaetodontodae spp.) Anatomy: Small (generally about 15cm/6ins long) and disc shaped, Butterflyfish are a common sight on the reef. They show distinctive markings which are virtually all a variation of black, yellow and white patterns. Their lips protrude from the front of their faces. The entire nape is concave and conclusively distinguishes them from Angelfish. Behaviour: Normally found in pairs as they find life partners when they reach adulthood. They tend to flutter around the reef eating algae and other marine flora. Occasionally they shoal, particularly the Bannerfish Butterflyfish (Heniochus spp.). Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Chaetodon spp. Chaetodon trifascialis Chevroned , 3 Chaetodon falcuca Saddleback , 3 Chaetodon meyersi Meyers ,4 page35 of 59

36 Chaetodon xanocephalus Yellow-headed ,10 Chaetodon lineolatus Lined ,1 Chaetodon melannotus Black-backed ,5 Chaetodon auriga Threadfin ,8 Chaetodon trifasciatus Indian redfin ,1 Chaetodon kleinni Klein s ,9 Chaetodon lunula Raccoon ,1 Chaetodon vagabundus Vagabond ,7 Chaetodon zanzibariensis Zanzibar 58,3 Chaetodon bennetti Bennett s ,2 Chaetodon triangulum Triangular 19 61,4 Chaetodon merensii Merten s ,6 Chaetodon interruptus Indian Ocean Teardrop 20 58,1 Chaetodon guttatissimus Spotted ,3 Chaetodon citrinellus Speckled ,4 Forcipiger spp. Forcipiger sp. (Big) Longnosed , 1+2 Heniochus spp. Heniochus acuminatus Longfin Bannerfish ,1 Angelfish(Pomacanthidae spp.) page36 of 59

37 Anatomy The maingenera in the Angelfish family ispomacanthus. Pomacanthus spp.are medium sized fish, around thirty centimetres long when mature, and display bright colours and spectacular patterns. All Angelfish have a cheek spine extending across the gill cover towards the rear of the fish, a single continuous dorsal fin and convex napes, useful for distinguishing them from Butterflyfish. Behaviour Angelfish are generally solitary or found in pairs, and behave in a similar manner to Butterflyfish, swimming over the reef eating algae off the substrate. If a diver gets too close they will hide, which makes them difficult to monitor. Latin Name Common Name A + S Humann Collins Pomacanthus spp. Pomacanthus semicirculatus Semicircle ,6 Pomacanthus imperator Emperor ,2 Apolemichthys spp. Apolemychthys trimaculatus Three Spot ,1 Pygoplites spp. Pygoplites diacanthus Regal ,1 Surgeonfish (Acanthuridae spp.) Anatomy Surgeonfish are easily recognisable by their extremely sharp keel which sticks horizontally out of either side of their caudal peduncle. This extended involuntarily when their caudal peduncle brushes page37 of 59

38 against anything, and is sharp as a surgeon s knife, which is the origin of the name. They are fairly round, thin fish with steep napes leading to a small pointed mouth and very obvious, rounded gill cover. Behaviour Usually found in loose aggregations swimming across the reef eating algae off the substrate and often in the same group as intermediate phase Parrotfish. They swim using their pectoral fins and their caudal fin. Only survey to Family (Surgeonfish, Bristletooth, Tang or Unicornfish) Latin Name Common Name A + S Humann Collins Acanthurus spp. Acanthurus nigricauda Black Streak ,1 Acanthurus triotegus Convict ,9 Acanthurus lineatus Striped ,1 Paracanthus spp. Paracanthus hepatus Palette ,12 Ctenochaetus spp. Ctenochaetus binotatus Two-spot Bristletooth ,9 Ctenachaetus strigosus Gold-ring Bristletooth 126,11 Ctenachaetus striatus Lined Bristletooth ,8 Naso spp. Naso lituratus Orangespined Unicornfish ,1 Zebrasoma spp. Zebrasoma desjardinii Indian Sailfin Tang ,3 Zebrasoma scopas Brushtail Tang ,4 page38 of 59

39 Grouper(Serranida e spp.) Anatomy Cigar-shaped bodies, with large heads relative to their body size and large, rounded fins make Groupers quite recognisable. They have large mouths with upturned lips, which make them look quite grumpy. Their pupils are wedge-shaped, sloping down towards the lips. Locally, they vary in size from the Black-tipped Grouper, which can be as small as 10cm/4ins, to large Saddleback Groupers and Potato Groupers, which can grow to over a metre long. Behaviour Groupers are generally slow moving, but are capable of quick bursts of speed. When opened rapidly, their large, upturned mouths draw in water, along with small fish and crustaceans that get caught in their concentric rows of teeth, which they swallow. They are normally found in caves, under overhangs or in crevices in rocks, hanging just off the bottom or in smaller species, resting on the bottom. They are generally shy and will move off if a diver gets too close. All Groupers are surveyed to species, except for Blue-and-Yellow which is surveyed as Other Grouper. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Plectroplomus spp. Plectroplomus laevis Saddleback ,3 Plectroplomus punctatis African Coral Cod 29,9 Aethaloperca spp. Aethaloperca rogaa Redmouth ,1 Anyperodon spp. Anyperodon leucogrammicus Slender ,2 Epinephelus spp. page39 of 59

40 Epinephelus fasciatus Black-tipped ,11 Epinephelus flavocaeruleus Blue-and-Yellow 26,4 Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus White- Spotted ,7 Epinephelus tukula Potato ,2 Epinephelus merra Honeycomb ,1 Epinephelus polyphekadion Camouflage ,3 Epinephelus fuscogattatus Brown Marbled ,2 Epinephelus spilotoceps Foursaddle ,5 Cephalophilis spp. Cephalophilis miniata Coral Hind ,1 Cephalophilis sonnerati Tomato ,9 Cephalophilis argus Peacock ,11 Cephalophilis urodeta Flagtail ,6 Variola spp. Variola louti Yellow-edged Lyretail ,1 Parrotfish(Scarida e spp.) Anatomy Parrotfish are very common and may be confused with Wrasse, which also swim using their pectorals rather than their caudal fin. They are generally cigar-shaped and change colour as they age, making them difficult to identify to species level. They are unique in having fused teeth that form a hard beak which they use to bite off lumps of coral on which they feed. This is the easiest way page40 of 59

41 to distinguish them from Wrasse which have lips. They range in size from tiny juveniles to huge Bumphead Parrotfish which can grow over 1.3m/4ft. Behaviour Each large, colourful male has a harem of smaller, plainer females. Parrotfish are sequential hermaphrodites; when a male dies, the largest female changes sex, grows and takes over as the dominant male. The smaller females tend to form aggregations, whereas the larger males lead a more solitary lifestyle. They are seen all over the reefs in the Seychelles and at all depths. Bumphead Parrotfish, which we monitor specifically as megafauna, usually stay in groups of at least three of four, but schools of up to 50 have been seen. All other Parrotfish are monitored only as Scaridae spp. A few local examples are included below, just learn them as Parrotfish. Only the Bumphead Parrotfish is surveyed to species, the rest surveyed as Other Parrotfish. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Scaridae spp. Scarus niger Swarthy ,3 (Ceto) Scarus bicolour Bicolour ,2 Scarus (clorus) sordidus Bullethead Bulbometopon spp. Bulbometopon muricatum Bumphead ,1 Wrasse (Labridae spp.) Anatomy Very similar looking to Parrotfish, Wrasse can be distinguished by having lips, rather than beaks. Wrasse come in a huge variety of shapes, sizes and colours. For this reason not all Wrasse species are monitored individually, only the Cheilinus spp., however a sound knowledge of their subfamilies is important. They all have sharp canines, a single, continuous dorsal fin, relatively thick lips and a thick caudal peduncle. page41 of 59

42 Behaviour Wrasse behave similarly to Parrotfish, and are even more abundant. Smaller species tend to hide in coral colonies, whereas larger ones are normally quite bold and swim over the reef. They use their canines to dig in the substrate for small crustaceans and invertebrates. Like Parrotfish, they are sequential hermaphrodites. NB- Even though not all the Wrasse below are monitored, familiarity with the subfamilies is essential so you will be tested on all the following species. Only Humphead, Triple-tail, Red-breasted and Cheeklined Splendour surveyed to species level, all other species are surveyed as Other Wrasse. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Cheilinus spp. Cheilinus undulates Humphead ,1 Cheilinus tribolatus Triple-tail ,3 Cheilinus fasciatus Red-breasted ,2 (Oxy) Cheilinus diagrammus Cheeklined Splendour ,6 Thalassoma spp. Thalassoma lunare Crescent ,6 Thalassoma Hardwicke Six-Bar ,8 Halichores spp. Halichores hortulanus Checkerboard ,1 Anampses spp. Anampses meleogrides Yellowtail ,1 Cheilo spp. Cheilo inermis Cigar ,1 Epibulus spp. Epibulus insidiator Slingjaw ,1 Hemigymnus spp. page42 of 59

43 Hemigymnus fasciatus Barred Thicklip ,1 Hemigymnus melapterus Black-edged Thicklip ,2 Novaculichthys spp. Novaculichthys taeniouris Rockmover ,7 Coris spp. Coris aygula Clown Coris ,1 Labroides spp. Labroides sp. Cleaner sp Bodianus spp. Bodianus diana Diana s Hogfish ,2 Bodianus axillaris Axilspot Hogfish ,4 Sweetlips(Haemulidae spp.) Anatomy Sweetlips get their name from their large lips. They appear similar to Snappers, but have a blunter nape and are generally slightly smaller, with more complex patterns on their skin. Behaviour By day, Sweetlips tend to lurk in crevices and small caves, rarely being seen in the open. At night they hunt crustaceans, and are a lot more active. They do not school, but several individuals may be found in the same area because of its suitability as an environment in which to rest. For example, in an area with little cover, a cave would be a great place for a Sweetlips to rest, so several may take advantage of it at the same time without interacting with each other at all. Only Oriental, Spotted and Gibbus surveyed, all other surveyed as Other Sweetlips page43 of 59

44 Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Diagramma spp. Diagramma pictum Silver ,1 Plectorhinchus spp. Plectorhinchus orientalis Oriental ,1 Plectorhinchus gibbosus Gibbus ,8 Plectorhinchus picus Spotted ,10 Plectorhinchus flavomaculatus Gold-Spotted ,8 Plectorhinchus schotaf Somber 48,6 Snapper (Lutjanidae spp.) Anatomy Snappers are small to medium sized fish, which when fully grown range from 20cm/8ins to over a metre/3ft from the mouth to the end of the caudal fin. Generally, they have a fairly flat underside, and their canines may be seen when they open their mouths. A single, continuous dorsal fin runs along the back. Their tails are notched, but not fully forked. Sometimes confused with Emperors, their eyes are lower set and the eye sockets do not protrude. Behaviour May be single, in small groups or large shoals, where the smaller species tend to be polarized (such as the Longspot Snapper, Lutjanus fulviflamma) and the larger ones tend to be unpolarized (eg. Black Snapper, Macolor niger). Most species of Snapper are nocturnal feeders, catching smaller fish and crustaceans. During the day, they are also commonly found sheltering under overhangs. page44 of 59

45 Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Lutjanus spp. Lutjanus bengalensis Bengal ,2 Lutjanus kasmira Bluelined ,1 Lutjanus gibbus Paddletail ,2 Lutjanus bohar Red ,8 Lutjanus argentimaculatus Mangrove Jack ,9 Lutjanus fulvus Flametail ,4 Lutjanus monostigma Onespot ,10 Lutjanus vitta Brownstripe ,7 Lutjanus russelli Russell s ,11 Lutjanus sebae Red Emperor ,8 Lutjanus fulviflamma Longspot ,8 Macolor spp. Macolor niger Black ,5 Aprion spp. Aprion viresceris Green Jobfish ,2 Emperor(Lethrinus spp.) Anatomy Often confused with snappers, Emperors are a similar size and shape. The three principle differences are the Emperors more rounded underside, their eyes being higher up on the head, with the eye sockets protruding further than the Snappers, and their upper lip is extended over their lower lip. page45 of 59

46 They also have the ability to perform crypsis; being able to rapidly intensify a series of dark brown horizontal and vertical markings along their body. Behaviour The behaviour of Emperors varies with each species. For example the Big-eye Bream Emperor will hang a few metres off the bottom, only moving when a threat appears, whereas the Red-ear Emperors are a lot busier and rarely stay still. In general the larger Emperor, the less active they appear. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Lethrinus spp. Lethrinus erythracanthus Yellowfin ,9 Lethrinus harak Thumbprint ,1 Lethrinus mahsena Mahsena 53,3 Lethrinus nebulosus Blue-scaled ,7 Lethrinus olivaceus Longnosed ,10 Lethrinus lentjan Pink-ear ,2 Lethrinus variegatus Variegated 121 Lethrinus obsoletus Orange-striped ,6 Lethrinus rubrioperculatus Red-ear ,11 Lethrinus xanthochilus Yellowlip ,11 Gymnocranius spp. Gymnocranius grandoculis Blue-lined Large-eye Bream ,6 Monotaxis spp. Monotaxis grandoculis Big-Eye Bream ,1 Triggerfish (Balistidae spp.) page46 of 59

47 Anatomy Triggerfish have a distinctive shape, with a diamond-shaped body, and their eyes high on their head. They look similar to some Filefish, but are fatter, generally shorter and have the ability to lock their dorsal spine in place, whereas Filefish cannot. Behaviour They swim in a similar fashion to boxfish and puffers sort of sculling motion using their dorsal, anal and pectoral fins. They are generally shy and will hide when divers approach. However nesting Titan Triggerfish (Balistidae viridescens) are aggressive towards divers if they stray into their territory and can give a nasty nip. Only Titan and Flagtail Triggerfish are surveyed to species, all other are surveyed as Other Triggerfish. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Balistidae spp. Balistidae conspicillum Clown ,4 Balistidae viridescens Titan ,6 Balistapus spp. Balistapus undulates Orange-stripe ,5 Odonus spp. Odonus niger Redtooth ,1 Rhinecanthus spp. Rhinecanthus aculeatus Picasso ,8 Sufflamen spp. Sufflamen fraenatus Bridled ,11 Sufflamen bursa Scythe ,3 Sufflamen chrysopterus Flagtail ,1 page47 of 59

48 Rabbitfish (Siganidae spp.) Anatomy Rabbitfish bear a passing resemblance to Surgeonfish, but on clear inspection there several very obvious differences. They lack Surgeonfish s sharp keel on the caudal peduncle. Also their mouths protrude even further, and are higher up on the face, and they have spiny, rather than a soft dorsal fin, which has venomous tips on each spine. Their tails are often forked, as opposed to the majority of Surgeonfish, who have notched tails. Behaviour Normally found in pairs, Rabbitfish float over the reef eating grasses and algae. They are fairly slow, casual swimmers but are capable of quick bursts of speed. Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Siaganus spp. Siaganus argenteus Forktail ,4 Siaganus stellatus Honeycomb ,10 Siaganus corallines Coral ,1 Siaganus puelloides Blackeye ,11 Siaganus sutor African Whitespotted 129,9 Other Families You can look at the rest of the fish if you feel so inclined, but you will be taught about them by the staff on base, so concentrate on the families above. When you arrive on base you will have a full review of all the fish through a series of lectures, but do what you can before you arrive. Good luck! Latin Name Common Name A+S Humann Collins Caesio/Pterocaesio Fusilier Holocentridae Soldier and Squirrelfish Cheilodipterus macrodon Tiger Cardinalfish ,9 Mullidae Goatfish page48 of 59

49 Zanclus cornutus Moorish Idol ,1 Tetraodontidae Pufferfish Diodontidae Porcupinefish Priacanthidae Bigeye Ostraciidae Box/Cow/Trunk Cirrhitidae Hawkfish Nemipteridae Bream Kyphosidae Drummer PLEASE NOTE: Some of the fish listed above are not recorded during the survey dives. You will however be examined on them during PowerPoint and underwater tests as they may be confused with similar target fish. Further information on target species will be provided during the methodology presentation when you arrive at base. 3 Invertebrates Section (Fish Subject, Coral Reef Monitoring Phase, Coral Recruitment Phase) 3.1 Introduction Invertebrates are surveyed all year round by GVI Seychelles, however the list of surveyed species varies depending on the coral and fish methodologies the volunteer is undertaking. Coral Reef Monitoring contains the most comprehensive list of surveyed invertebrates and volunteers will have to learn all invertebrate species listed below, whereas the Fish surveys and Coral Recruitment surveys concentrate on the coral predators (a refined list is for these phases is provided at the end of this section). The two main books to study from are The Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide by G.R. Allen and R. Steele which is on the recommended reading list and Marine Life of the Maldives by N. Coleman. Page numbers for both books are included in the handout. The books are available for reference on base. Included in the section is a list of all surveyed invertebrate species for each phase at GVI. page49 of 59

50 3.2 Invertebrate Identification Guide Phylum Annelida: Class Polychaeta: Worms Polychaeta can be found in almost every sub-tidal habitat. They inhabit inter-tidal area down to abyssal depths, and in many soft bottom areas are the most common forms of life. As worms are very vulnerable to predation, many have evolved lifestyles and armour to enhance their chances of survival. Some species construct tubes of calcium carbonate, sand grains or mucus in which to live; others bore into coral. Feather Duster Worms: These are also known as fan tubeworms and are in the family Sabellidae. They live permanently in tubes, which are wedged in coral or buried in the bottom. The graceful feeding tentacles trap small food particles and envelop them in sticky mucus, conveying them to their mouth. If a predatory fish bites off the tentacles, the worm is unable to feed, but they regenerate in a few days. The light sensitive tentacle tips can detect shadows and cause the tentacles to retract instantly. See page 130 in A+S and 118 in Coleman. Christmas Tree Worms: Family Serpulidae. Young worms settle on coral heads and secrete a tube that kills the underlying polyps. New coral growth quickly surrounds the tube. Meanwhile the worm occupant secretes additional tube material to keep pace with the coral. The worm lives permanently in its tube. Only the brightly coloured, feather-like feeding tentacles, used to snare planktonic organisms, protrude. The tentacles arrange themselves into circles that decrease in size towards the end of the crown. The appendages are light and pressure sensitive and quickly withdraw into the tube. Each worm has a twin set of spirals. See page 130 in A+S and page 122 in Coleman. Spaghetti Worms: Family Terebellidae. These white string-like objects are connected to a worm that lives in a tube manufactured from sediments. They function as feeding tentacles, conveying tiny bundles of fine sediment to the worm, which lives well-hidden deep below the surface. The strands reach up to metre or more in length but are quickly retracted if touched do not touch! See page 131 in A+S and page 123 in Coleman. Phylum Platyhelminthes: Class Turbellaria: Flatworms: Flatworms are for the most part wafer-thin, bilaterally symmetrical creatures that appear to glide over the substrate. There is a head with simple sense organs, including simple tentacles and eye spots, visible under the microscope. Flatworms have no external gills (unlike most nudibranchs) but some have marginal tentacles sensory folds at the head end that may contain eyes, and other species may have dorsal tentacles issuing from the back near the head. Pages in Coleman and in A+S. Anthropoda: Crusctacea: page50 of 59

51 This group is incredibly diverse with regards to size, shapes, colour and lifestyles. The crustacean body is composed of segments, although they may be hidden by the hard outer crust, which they outgrow periodically as they continuously grow throughout their lives. Another typical feature is the jointed limbs with internal muscular attachments, capable of movement in all directions. The majority of crustaceans seen on coral reefs are known as decapods; Latin for 10 legs. Shrimps (often called prawns), lobsters and crabs are all prominent members of this group. They form an integral part of the food chain, being actively hunted by larger predators, mainly fishes. Mollusca: Shrimps: This is a very diverse group. They live in a variety of habitats including coral reefs, rocky reefs, rubble, seagrass meadows and burrows in sand, under rocks, in caves, under ledges. Due to the variety of habitats their food ranges from algae, to detritus and may include plankton, fish tissue, sea stars and scavenged material. See pages in Coleman or pages in A+S. Mantis Shrimps: These are actually non-decapods. These large (up to 30cm), colourful creatures are often seen shuffling across the bottom. They are voracious predators of other crustaceans, small fishes, as well as molluscs and worms, suing powerful claws to smash their victim s shell. Mantis shrimps have a long flat body with short carapace and 8 appendages, 6 legs and variously modified raptorial claws. See pages in Coleman or page 139 in A+S. Crabs: Several thousand different kinds of crabs occur throughout the world s oceans. Crabs can walk, run, crawl, clamber, swim, dig, burrow and scurry depending on their type. Although some species have evolved into incredible bizarre examples, they all retain the same basic body form. The body is encased in a carapace with a reduced abdomen folded under as an abdominal flap housing sexual organs. Most have claws known as chelae, some are exaggerated in size and are used for defence, to capture prey, attract females and repulse other males. Crabs live from the shore down to the bottom of the deepest oceanic trenches and are found in most habitats between. See pages in Coleman and pages in A+S. It is difficult to define a typical mollusc, but the majority have a calcareous shell. The shell offers a measure of protection from voracious mollusc predators of which there are many. The shell also prevents drying of the delicate internal organs, this is of particular importance to animals that live in the shallows and could be caught out by the tide. Not all molluscs have a shell. Another key feature for most molluscs is a large muscular foot. Mollusca: Gastropods (shells) Most of their body is hidden with their shells; this offers protection from predators. Aside from the shell the only other body part usually seen is the muscular foot. When disturbed, the foot is completely retracted and in some shells there is a solid trapdoor or operculum that completely page51 of 59

52 covers the appendage. An organ called the mantle lines the inner surface of the shell. Gastropods are best encountered in places dominated by rubble, dead coral and sand, and rarely on live coral. Murex sp.: These beautiful shells are delicately sculptured and frequently have spiky projections. The circular aperture is equipped with a horny operculum that seals up the shell when the animal withdraws inside. Murex shells are predators of the other mollusc species and barnacles. See page 180 in A+S and in Coleman. Conch/Strombs: They are usually seen in sand or rubble patches on coral reefs. The margin of the shell aperture is widely flared in the adult stage of the species. It has a claw-like, horny operculum that can be used as a lever to upright itself if the shell is flipped onto its back. See page 174 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Cowrie: Cowries have a bilobed mantel that completely envelops the shell. Usually seen in caves or underneath slabs of dead coral, but may also be out in the open. Generally hunts at night on the bottom in search of prey; sponges and benthic organisms. Surprisingly little is known about the feeding habits or cowries. See pages in A+S and Coleman. Triton: The triton trumpet is one of the few known predators of the Crown-Of-Thorns starfish. They also eat other sea stars. Collectors heavily prize the shell and many traditional cultures use the shells as a form of calling people to meetings etc. They can grow to 50cm. See page 180 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Cone Shell: Cone shells live on or under sandy surfaces or under rocks and coral boulders. They have a characteristic conical shape with an elongate aperture that is protected by a small, horny operculum. The tongue-like radula is equipped with harpoon-shaped teeth that contain poisons used to stun and kill small fish prey. The venom is very potent and capable of causing human fatalities. The venomous sting is employed via a highly manoeuvrable, forceful proboscis. See pages in A+S and pages in Coleman. Drupella sp.: Close relation of the Murex shell and is similar in shape although a lot smaller and lacking in the elongate spines. These small (3cm) shells can cause significant damage by grazing on corals. See page in A+S and 145 in Coleman. Topshell/ Turban Shell: The underlying shell of this species has a beautiful, pearly lustre and is used for making jewellery and buttons. The shell has a distinctive conical shape with a broad, rounded base. When the animal withdraws into its shell, the opening is covered by the operculum, a door-like membrane. Generally found beneath dead coral slabs and rocks on intertidal reef and out in the open feeding on algae-covered rock in deeper water at night. See page 172 in A+S and page 129 in Coleman. Helmet: Very popular with collectors and sometimes fashioned into ornaments. They have very robust shell that is virtually predator proof. Their habitat consists of extensive clean, white sand. It is frequently buried during the day with only the tip of the shell showing through the sand. It actively hunts at night for food, mainly sea urchins and sand dollars. See page 169 in A+S and 138 in Coleman. Mollusca: Nudibranch page52 of 59

53 These animals are commonly known as sea slugs. Unlike other gastropods, most of the species lacka shell and they use their foot-like appendage to slowly crawl over the surface of the reef in search for food. Nudibranchs gills are visible as feathery structures on their backs. Most species also have a a pair of antennae on top of their head. Nudibranchs tend to have toxins in their flesh or it is generally distasteful. Most predators who try eating a nudibranch will not repeat the experience. The bright colours that nudibranchs display act as a reminder of the fact that they are not good to eat. See pages in A+S and page 152 in Coleman. Mollusca: Cephalopods The name cephalopods means head-foot, which is basically all that they consist of. Cephalopods have the most highly developed nervous system of all the invertebrates, their vision being highly adapted and the most almost similar to that of humans. Propulsion of the cephalopods is by jet locomotion, where water is forcibly expelled from the mantle cavity. Cuttlefish: They have a stout body and 10 appendages encircling the mouth, which are much shorter than seen in the squid and the octopus. They are often seen hovering off the bottom quite often below the hulls of boats. They are easily approached. They are characterised by a mantle bristling with appendages and warts, it can change its outer pattern and colour. They feed mostly on fish and crustaceans. See page 107 in A+S and page 183 in Coleman. Squid: Characterised by having 10 appendages that encircle the mouth. They are generally elongate and lack the internal shell found in their close relations the cuttlefish. See page 208 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Echinoderms: Echinoderms are a very important group of animals that occur only in the marine environment and are largely bottom dwellers. The most obvious feature is the radial symmetry of the body made up of 5 repeated sections. There are many different forms, but all have a hard internal skeleton of small calcareous plates (ossicles). These plates may be flexible (as in sea stars) or fused into a rigid shell (as in sea urchins). The ossicles often have spiny projections. Echinoderms also have a water vascular system consisting of fluid filled canals, a unique feature of this phylum. Tiny tube feet/sucker-like pods are a part of this system and are used for locomotion and capturing food. Those members of the Echinodermata who possess distinctive arms are able to regenerate lost arms if the central body disc and one arm remain. Generally the shape and the colour of the body are utilized for identification. Echinoderms: Sea Stars: Sea stars have an obvious radial symmetry. Most characteristically have 5 arms although some species may have more. The body actually consists of 5 duplicated segments, each with the same internal organs. page53 of 59

54 Crown-of-Thorns: (Acanthaster planci) Voracious predator of Scleractinian corals. It has rays, all of which are covered in spines and can cause painful wounds. The Triton Trumpet shell eats them. See page 216 in A+S and page 254 in Coleman. Cushion Sea Star: (Culcita sp.) Feeds on a variety of organisms including algae, bottom detritus and the polyps and flesh of some corals. The appendages of the cushion star are indistinct, causing this sea star to look like a cushion. Others: See pages in A+S and in Coleman. Echinoderms: Brittle Stars: The name is derived from words meaning, serpent-tail-like, referring to the shape of their arms. There is no replication of the internal organs, just a single set in the central disk. The tube feet on the very long flexible arms lack the suckers seen in the sea stars. Brittle star arms are thin and spiny looking, radiating from a circular, central body (disc). These are very fragile and break if handled. See page 225 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Echinoderms: Feather Stars: Known as Feather Stars because of their long feathery arms, which tend to project upwards from their disc-shaped body. They have specialised attachment organs known as cirri with which they adhere to the bottom. As opposed to the sea stars and the brittle stars, the mouth is situated on the upper side rather than the lower side, because feather stars filter their food from the water rather than from the bottom. Crinoids can have varying numbers of arms, anywhere from 5 to 200. The side branches, which come off of these arms, are covered in sticky pinnules, which aid the crinoids catching food. They are primarily nocturnal, although it is not unusual to see them during the day. See page 223 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Echinoderms: Sea Urchins: Rather than having projecting arms, the sea urchins are a round to oval shape and usually possess spines. They have a body enclosed in a test or shell consisting of closely fitting calcium carbonate plates. This is armed with numerous spines, which in many species are toxic. The spines are attached to the test by a type of ball and socket joint and are highly mobile. Along with the tube feet, they help the urchin to move, as well as defend it from predators. They tend to be nocturnal. Most sea urchins live on rocky shores, on hard surfaces or on sand flats. They can be found in the intertidal zone or in deeper waters. Long Spine: (Diadema sp.) The spines of these urchins are very long and can inflict a painful injury to the divers if touched. The spines are longer than the size of the body. See page in A+S and in Coleman. Mathae s Sea Urchin: (Echinodermetra sp.) This is a rock boring species which thrives in rugged conditions, coral and rocky reefs. These urchins can be brown, pink, green or purple, but the pines always appear to have a white circle of beaded tubercles around the base. page54 of 59

55 Short Spine: (Echinothrix sp.) Can sometimes be banded (Echinothrix calamaris) or totally black (Echinothrix diadema) The spines are not as long as the Diadema sp., as a rule the spines are no longer than the width of the body. Pencil Urchin: Much more active at night. Although small and secretive this species has a very decorative pattern on the dorsal surface and the thick, column-like spines are grooved at the tips with rows of tubercules running down the spines. Flower Urchin: (Toxomneustes sp.) This is a very distinctive species and easily recognised by its beautiful flower-like pedicillariae. It has been known to cause the death of 3 divers. Cake Urchin: Rocky and coral reefs, plus rocky shores, rubble and seagrass meadows. Seen in depths between 0-25m. This genus has a number of colour variations. The pattern of wider body spaces (5) between the spines is a reliable visual feature. The colour of the papillae in the five wider body spaces and the five smaller ones may be purple, black, brown, red or green. This genus may sometimes have debris on its spines. Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers: Sea cucumbers or Holothurians are sausage-shaped animals commonly observed on sand bottoms. Branched tentacles, that are connected to the water vascular system and can be opened and closed for feeding surround the mouth. Its skin is usually thick and leathery, although some species have a thin, almost transparent skin. The embedded calcareous ossicles or spicules give the skin a gritty texture. Most species feed on the rich organic film that coats sandy surfaces. These living conveyor belts ingest large amounts of sand as they slowly crawl over the bottom. The edible, organic material is digested as the sand particles pass through the straight, tube-like digestive tract. The processed sand is then expelled from the anus, leaving a characteristic trail on the bottom. Several species spurt sticky, toxic threads from the anus when threatened or roughly handled. Others can expel their internal organs to divert the attention of predators. See pages 247 in A+S and pages in Coleman. Lollyfish: (Holothuria arta). Body and tentacles entirely black, often coated in sand. Common on shallow reef flats and sand or rubble bottoms. Also frequent on seagrass beds. Concentrations from 50 to >300 per 100m 2. Elephant Trunk: (Holothuria fuscopunctata). Common on shallow reef flats and sand or rubble bottoms. Also frequent on seagrass beds. Darker dorsal side with mottling appearance and numerous slits across the body. The slits look like it has been cut. White Teatfish: (Holuthuria fuscogilva) Brown with ventral part of the body white, often a mottled dorsal colouration. There are teats (which have no function) on the side of their body. Black Teatfish: (Holothuria nobilis) Coral reefs, rocky reefs or sand but often prefers sand covered hard substrate than just sand. Usually found between 3-10m depth. Stout shaped. Often buried or covered with fine sand. Very characteristic teat like protuberances along the edge of the ventral surface. They are black with white teats. page55 of 59

56 Pentard: (Holothuria sp.) Variegated pattern/mottled on dorsal surface with a white belly. Fished by local fisherman, but as yet this cucumber does not have a true taxonomy done on it. Bohadschia sp.: Open sand or seagrass beds. Seen in open or practically buried. If disturbed they eject sticky white threads (cuvierian organs) from anus. They range in colours of brown, often with eye patterns all over. Smooth appearance, but often with debris on surface. Actinopyga sp.: They have a variable colour range of browns, and sometimes have a white ventral side. 25 or more mouth tentacles. The outer body is densely covered with tube feet. Sticky. There are 5 teeth at the mouth. Stichopus sp.: They feed by way of extendible mouth tentacles tipped with soft, sticky pads, which pick up bottom detritus. Body covered by papillae. Shed parts of body when attacked. Squared edges/ends. Prickly Redfish: (Theleonata ananas) This is the largest and bulkiest species, getting up to 60cm. It has a squarish body with numerous projections from it. The firm pointed dorsal papillae make it easy to recognise. Fleshy growths provide shelter for several symbiotic organisms including scale worms, shrimps, and brittle stars. They are a bright orange but sometimes greenish colour in deep water, and pink, red, or brown in shallow water. Each papillae is about 2-3cm long. Royal: (Thelenota anax) Can be massive and with its red reticulated pattern is fairly simple to identify. It has a kind of rectangular shape. Graeffe s/flowerfish: (Pearsonothuria graffei) Vary in colour from a basic light green to a light brown. Its feeding behaviour involves the intake of sediments and small animals caught up in the soft, sticky pads of its feeding tentacles. This species is active during the day. Edible Sea Cucumber:The Edible has a distinct colour pattern of a black or brown back with a light brown yellow to orange underbelly. The colour change is very distinct; with line of colour change running along the side. Mollusca: Cephalopods: The name cephalopods means head-foot, which is basically all that they consist of. Cephalopods have the most highly developed nervous system of all the invertebrates, their vision being highly adapted and almost similar to that of humans. Propulsion of the cephalopods is by jet locomotion, where water is forcibly expelled from the mantle cavity. Octopus: They have 8 arms/legs covered in suckers. Octopus totally lack an internal shell. They can be found hiding in a hole that has clam and crab shells scattered about the entrance. They are very difficult to identify to species level. They can change colour quickly and dramatically. Most reef octopus species have a very short life span that ranges from about 1-3 years. See pages and 185 in Coleman. page56 of 59

57 Anthropoda: Crustacea: This group is incredibly diverse with regards to size, shapes, colour and lifestyles. The crustacean body is composed of segments, although they may be hidden by the hard outer crust, which they outgrow periodically as they continuously grow throughout their lives. Another typical feature is the jointed limbs with internal muscular attachments, capable of movement in all directions. The majority of crustaceans seen on coral reefs are known as decapods; Latin for 10 legs. Shrimps (often called prawns), lobsters and crabs are all prominent members of this group. They form an integral part of the food chain, being actively hunted by larger predators, mainly fishes. Spiny/Rock Lobsters: These are well known throughout the tropics where they form the basis of major fisheries. As adults these animals are fairly large (40cm) with a cylindricalshaped carapace, a pair of long spiny antennae and eyes that are high on the head and protected by large curved spines (rostral horns). The powerful muscular abdomen has downward pointing curved spiny plates along the edges and the tail is broad and strong. They usually live in caves, under coral heads or tabulate corals. They are nocturnal and can be seen more actively at night when they are hunting. They usually all have unique colour patterns and bodily characteristics. See pages in Coleman and 149 in A+S. 3.3 Invertebrate List for Fish and Coral Recruitment Group Scientific Name Common Name Gastropod Molluscs (Gastropoda) Drupella Sp. Drupella Bivalve Molluscs (Bivalvia) Tridacnidae Giant Clam Sea Stars (Asteroidae) Sea Urchins (Echinoidea) Culcita Sp. Acanthaster Planci Diadema Sp. Echinometra Sp. Echinothrix Sp. Cushion Sea Star Crown of Thorns Sea Star Other Sea Star Long Spine Urchin Mathae's Urchin Short Spine Urchin Pencil Urchin Toxopneustes pileolus Flower Urchin Cake Urchin Other Urchin Sea Cucumbers Holothura atra Lollyfish page57 of 59

58 (Holothuroidea) Cephalopod Molluscs (Cepthalopoda) Lobster (Palinuridae) Holothuria fuscopunctata Holothuria fuscogilva Holothuria noblis Holothuria edulis Holothuria (undescribed species) Bohadschia sp. Actinopyga sp. Actinopyga mauritiana Stichopus sp. Thelenota ananas Pearsonothurian graeffei Thelenota anax Octopus Cyanea Panulirus sp. Parribacus sp./scyllarides sp. Elephant Trunk White Teatfish Black Teatfish Edible Sea Cucumber Pentard Bohadschia Actinopyga Yellow Surfish Stichopus Prickly Redfish Flowerfish Royal Common Reef Octopus Spiny Lobster Slipper Lobster 4 Recommended Reading List General reference books Allen, G.R & Steene, R. (1994). Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Guide. Tropical Reef Research, Singapore This is a good book giving a broad overview of the main marine creatures you will learn about and see underwater; from fish and coral to other invertebrates, sponges and algae. There are details about the different groups of creatures at the start of each chapter; but no individual descriptions on the species themselves. Coral page58 of 59

59 Allen, G.R & Steene, R. (1994)Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Guide, Tropical Reef Research, Singapore Erhardt, H. & Knop, D. (2005) Corals Indo-Pacific Field Guide, Ikan Publishers, Frankfurt, Germany Kelley, R. Coral Finder- Indo-Pacific, BYO Guides, The Australian Coral Reef Society Veron, J.E.N. (2002) Corals of the World, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia. Veron J.E.N. (1986) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific, Angus and Robertson Publishers, North Ryde, Australia. At the moment there are very few hard coral identification books at a reasonable price to recommend. The Indo-Pacific Reef Guide is the main one but it covers a wide area and in limited detail. The photos in this book are NOT suitable for in detail coral identification. Corals of the World is a stunning book and quite the best coral reference book for the Indo-Pacific. It is a very large three volume compendium of all corals. Unfortunately, this book is not particularly practical for the backpack and some may find the price above their budget. We do have copies of all books on base for reference. The Coral Finder- Indo-Pacificis a great flip-chart book and reasonably priced. It is a useful guide for learning to identify the key features of coral; from the key group all the way down to species. It has basic descriptions and good pictures, although it does contain some corals that we do not survey. Fish Allen, G.R & Steene, R. (1994), Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Guide, Tropical Reef Research, Singapore (A+S) Allen, G.R., Steene, R., Humann, P. & Deloach, N., Reef Fish Identification (Humann) Leisks, E. & Myers, R., Coral Reef Fishes: Indo-Pacific and Carribean (Collins) page59 of 59

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