SUBJECT: Chapters 2 and 3 (Sight Distance), 5, and 8 (Drainage Structures and Castings)

Transcription

1 DISTRIBUTION: Electronic Recipients List MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPED BY: Design Standards Unit ISSUED BY: Office of Project Management and Technical Support TRANSMITTAL LETTER NO. (12-03) MANUAL: Road Design English Manual DATED: December 5, 2012 SUBJECT: Chapters 2 and 3 (Sight Distance), 5, and 8 (Drainage Structures and Castings) A list of changes is attached to this update. INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Record this transmittal letter number, date and subject on the transmittal record sheet located in the front of the ENGLISH manual. The last Transmittal Letter was 12-02, dated May 22, Remove from the ENGLISH manual: 2-0(1) and 2-0(2) 2-5(9) through 2-5(18) 3-2(1) through 3-2(14) 3-4(1) through 3-4(21) 5-3(1) and 5-3(2) 8-4(7) through 8-4(9) 3. Insert into the ENGLISH manual: 2-0(1) and 2-0(2) 2-5(9) through 2-5(16) 3-2(1) through 3-2(17) 3-4(1) through 3-4(29) 5-3(1) and 5-3(2) 8-4(7) through 8-4(9) All updated sheets are dated November, The Road Design Manual and associated Transmittal Letters are available online in PDF format at Any technical questions regarding this transmittal should be directed to James Rosenow, Design Standards Engineer, at (651) , or by to DesignStandards.DOT@state.mn.us James A. Rosenow, P.E. Design Standards Engineer, Acting

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3 Summary of Changes MnDOT Road Design Manual Chapter 2 Page 2-0(2) Index o Deleted Non-Striping Sight Distance o Decision Sight Distance moved to Section o Updated chapter references to the 2010 HCM o Minor edits to conform to the 2010 HCM Section o Added reference to Intersection Sight Distance criteria found in Chapter 5 o Removed the last sentence of the first paragraph o Removed guidance pertaining to Non-Striping Sight Distance o Clarified Stopping Sight Distance formulation o Modified Passing Sight Distance to conform to new AASHTO Green Book Removed formulae in lieu of MUTCD-based design values Substituted AASHTO-derived verbiage as appropriate Included discussion of LOS and Highway Capacity Manual methods Added discussion pertaining to coordination of horizontal and vertical sight restrictions o Reversed order of Metric/English guidance o English re-named U.S. Customary Chapter 3 Section 3-2 Horizontal Alignment o Reversed order of Metric/English guidance o English re-named U.S. Customary o Re-paginated o Section (Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves) Removed guidance pertaining to Non-Striping Sight Distance including Figure E Updated references to Chapter 2 Minor edits to numbered bullets Revised Figures B1, B2, C and D to Figure Nos B, C, D and E respectively Section 3-4 Vertical Alignment o Reversed order of Metric/English guidance o English re-named U.S. Customary o Re-paginated o Section (Maximum Grades) Incorporated contents of Technical Memorandum No TS-03 Minor verbiage refinements Eliminated redundant content o Section (Minimum Grades) Restored discussion on rural roadways on embankment and curbed roadways from prior Manual version Added additional discussion regarding design in flat terrain o Table A (Maximum % Grades) Incorporated contents of Technical Memorandum No TS-03 Revised Footnote 1 to match AASHTO criteria o Figure A (Critical Lengths of Grade) Expanded Metric chart to include 1% upgrade Refined Metric curves Corrected assumed power of truck in Metric figure Various formatting refinements o Figures C and D (Truck Climbing and Descending) Updated graphics to reflect more powerful truck per current AASHTO criteria Added missing metric versions

4 o o o Section (Vertical Curves) Corrected sag vertical curve formula for S>L condition Added Metric formulae for sag curve conditions Section (Sight Distance) Removed guidance pertaining to Non-Striping Sight Distance Added discussion pertaining to coordination of horizontal and vertical sight restrictions to Passing Sight Distance bullet as well as minor edits therein Figure A (Stopping Sight Distance) Refined graphs and clarified table Added 5 mph increments to US Customary version Figure B Removed (Non-Striping Sight Distance) Figure C (Passing Sight Distance) Revised sight distances per 2011 AASHTO Green Book Refined graphs and clarified table Added 5 mph increments to US Customary version Re-Numbered B Figure D (Headlight Sight Distance on Sag) Refined graphs and clarified table Added 5 mph increments to US Customary version Re-Numbered C Figure E (Comfort Sight Distance on Sag) Added missing Metric figure Expanded range of curve lengths on chart Added 5 mph increments to US Customary version Re-Numbered D Figure F (Ten Second Decision Sight Distance) Re-Numbered E Figure G (K Values) Updated and refined curves Added 5 mph increment labeling to US Customary version Re-Numbered F Section (Provisions for Passing) Corrected FHWA publication number and title Figure A (4-Lane Passing Section) Converted to dual-unit Chapter 5 Section o Corrected outdated reference from B to Chapter 8 Table A Standard Casting Assemblies o Corrected S-Curb casting 811 to be listed as square Figure A o Revised drawing to include 4020 structure and Design D reducer

5 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2-0(1) GENERAL Design Flexibility HIGHWAY SYSTEMS Jurisdictional Systems State Aid Systems DESIGN CONTROLS Drivers Vehicles Pedestrian and Bicycle Traffic Mass Transit Safety CHAPTER 2 HIGHWAY DESIGN STANDARDS Access Management Access Management System Planning Access Control Access Regulation Statute and Zoning PROJECT SCOPE DETERMINATION Project Scoping Project Programming Cost-Effectiveness Policy Value Engineering DESIGN PARAMETERS Functional Classification Arterials Collectors Local Roads and Streets Investment Categories New Construction/Reconstruction Preservation Preventive Maintenance Types of Highways Two-Lane Highways

6 2-0(2) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, Multi-Lane Highways Freeways High-Speed Multi-Lane Highways (Expressways) Low-Speed Multi-Lane Highways Scenic Byways Interregional Corridors Traffic Characteristics Speed Volume Directional Distribution Composition Traffic Flow Design Speed Average Running Speed Capacity Highway Mainline Signalized Intersections Unsignalized Intersections Level of Service Sight Distance Terrain Stopping Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance Decision Sight Distance Crash Data DESIGN STANDARDS Thirteen Critical Design Elements General Design Elements Geometric Design Exceptions Formal Design Exceptions Informal Design Exceptions DESIGN PROCEDURES Design Memorandums Coordination with Functional Groups Intermodal Coordination Agency/Department Coordination REFERENCES

7 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2-5(9) Highway Mainline Many of the factors that affect the capacity of a highway segment are listed below: 1. Traffic composition As the percentage of trucks and/or buses increases, the capacity decreases. Standard procedure converts the heavy vehicle volumes to passenger car equivalents. 2. Lane and shoulder width Capacity has a tendency to decrease as lane and shoulder width decrease. Corresponding factors are used to incorporate the influence of narrower pavement widths. 3. Lateral clearance If roadside interferences are within a certain distance of the edge of the travel lane, capacity decreases. This "shy distance" varies with design speed and one-way or two-way operation. 4. Auxiliary lanes The presence or absence of auxiliary lanes, such as parking or turn storage lanes, affects capacity. Because universal factors cannot be used to calculate their impact on capacity, individual analyses are necessary. 5. Alignment Horizontal and vertical alignment significantly affect capacity. For traffic operations on relatively long sections of highway, the frequency and sharpness of curves and grades affect the "average highway speed" (a weighted average design speed), stopping sight distances, and passing opportunities. Based on these three characteristics, adjustment factors can be applied to calculate their impact on capacity. At specific sites, grades can have significant and measurable impacts on highway capacity. Trucks lose speed when ascending grades. Chapter 3 provides details on the impact of grades on truck speeds and discusses warrants for climbing lanes. 6. At-grade intersections Intersections including driveways have a major impact on the capacity of a highway. Intersection capacity analysis must be treated separately because its influence on service volumes can be so great that it governs the capacity of an entire segment. 7. Freeway interchanges Weaving sections and exit and entrance ramp junctions at interchanges are usually the most important adjustments to freeway capacity. Operating conditions within weaving sections are affected by traffic volumes and the length and width of the section. Chapter 6 discusses the required design details to properly allow for weaving maneuvers. The HCM should be referenced when calculating the capacity or design service volume of the highway mainline and freeways Signalized Intersections Chapter 18, Signalized Intersections, in the HCM explains how to calculate the capacity of a signalized intersection. The operational analysis method addresses the capacity and level of service of intersecting approaches and the level of service of the intersection as a whole. Capacity is evaluated in terms of the ratio of demand flow rate to capacity (v/c ratio), while level of service is evaluated on the basis of average stopped delay per vehicle (s/veh). The HCM does not address the capacity of an intersection as a whole because the design and signalization of intersections focus on the accommodation of the intersection s major movements and approaches. The methodology can be used for pre-timed signals, vehicle-actuated signals, or multiphase signals. Operational analysis requires detailed information concerning geometric, traffic, and signalization conditions at an intersection. These data may be known for existing cases or projected for future situations. Because this analysis is complex, it is divided into five separate modules: input, volume adjustment, saturation flow rate, capacity analysis, and level of service. The HCM provides the detailed steps of intersection analysis. Figure A illustrates the basic procedure.

8 2-5(10) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 The basic unit of capacity for signalized intersections is 1900 passenger cars per hour of green per lane under ideal conditions (12 ft (3.6 m) lanes and no trucks, buses, turns, or pedestrian movements), which reflects the time lost due to queue start up and signal change intervals. OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS Figure A

9 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2-5(11) Unsignalized Intersections Chapters 19 and 20 in the HCM demonstrates how to calculate capacity for two-way and all-way stop-controlled intersections. The two-way stop-control analysis calculates the available capacity of the minor road primarily based upon the traffic operating characteristics of the major road by assuming that major street traffic is not affected by minor street movements. Most at-grade junctions are unsignalized intersections. In most of these cases, stop and yield signs are used to assign the right of way to one street of the junction. This designation forces the drivers of the controlled approaches to select gaps in the major street to complete their maneuvers. The capacity of the controlled maneuver is based on: 1. The distribution of gaps in the major street traffic stream, and 2. Driver judgment in selecting gaps to execute their maneuvers. This methodology adjusts for conflicting movements of minor street flows on each other and accounts for shared use of lanes by two or three minor street movements. The HCM further explains the basic procedures and detailed analyses of unsignalized intersections Level of Service The average highway user will tolerate a certain level of congestion and delay before becoming frustrated or attempting unsafe driving maneuvers. This level will vary according to the type of facility. For instance, a user expects a relatively free-flow condition on a rural freeway but will accept a certain number of stops and delays and heavier traffic volumes on a signalized urban arterial. The level of service concept addresses the issue of acceptable degrees of congestion. The various levels have been subjectively determined and qualitatively described. From these descriptions, quantitative measures have been developed, such as volume to capacity ratio (v/c), density, average travel speeds, percent-timefollowing, and control delay. Level of service is designated by a letter grade ranging from A to F, with A representing free-flow conditions and F designating breakdown flow. The designer should strive to provide the highest level of service feasible for the design year by weighing the desires and tolerances of road users against the resources available for satisfying those road users Sight Distance The driver must be able to see ahead a sufficient distance to conduct a variety of possible maneuvers. The type of sight distance that should be provided will depend upon the type of highway and the nature of the potential hazard. This section discusses the definitions and derivations of the various sight distances, including stopping, passing, and decision sight distances. Intersection sight distance is discussed in Chapter 5. Stopping sight distance, the distance required for a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path, is the minimum sight distance that should be provided at any point on any highway. Passing sight distance, the distance that drivers must be able to see along the road ahead to initiate and complete passing maneuvers, is applicable only on two-lane roadways. Decision sight distance, the distance required for a driver to detect an unexpected or obscure condition or source of information, decide on a course of action, and react accordingly, should be considered at each individual location. Applications are discussed under the appropriate topics in other chapters. All sight distance calculations are based on the passenger car as the design vehicle Stopping Sight Distance The available stopping sight distance on any roadway should be long enough to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Stopping sight distance is the minimum length that should be provided at any point on any roadway.

10 2-5(12) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the sum of two distances; the distance (d 1 ) traveled during driver perception/reaction time, and the braking distance (d 2 ) traveled during brake application. Based on the results of many studies, 2.5 seconds has been chosen for a perception/reaction time. This time will accommodate approximately 90 percent of all drivers when confronted with simple to moderately complex highway situations. Greater reaction time should be allowed in situations that are more complex. For more information, see Section Decision Sight Distance. Driver perception/reaction distance is calculated by: d 1 = 1.47 Vt (U.S. Customary) d 1 = Vt (Metric) where: d 1 = perception/reaction distance, ft (m) V = design speed, mph (km/h) t = perception/reaction time, 2.5 s Braking distance is calculated by: d 2 = V2 a d 2 = V2 a (U.S. Customary) (Metric) where: d 2 = braking distance, ft (m) V = design speed, mph (km/h) a = deceleration rate, ft /s 2 (m/s 2 ) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is calculated by: SSD = d1 + d2 Stopping sight distance represents a near worst-case situation. Approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 11.2 ft/s 2 (3.4 m/s 2 ). These values are within a driver s ability to stay within his or her lane and maintain steering control. A threshold of 11.2 ft/s 2 (3.4 m/s 2 ) is used to determine stopping sight distance. Implicit in the choice of this deceleration threshold is the assessment that most vehicle braking systems and the tire-pavement friction levels of most roadways are capable of providing a deceleration of at least 11.2 ft/s 2 (3.4 m/s 2 ). The friction available on most wet pavement surfaces and most vehicle braking systems are capable of providing braking friction that exceeds this deceleration rate. In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the driver s eye is defined as 3.5 ft (1080 mm) above the pavement, and the height of the object the driver needs to see is 2.0 ft (600 mm), which is representative of automobile headlights and taillights. Table A summarizes the stopping sight distance data for wet pavement on level terrain.

11 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2-5(13) Design speed (mph) Perception / reaction distance (ft) Table A STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES ON LEVEL TERRAIN U.S. Customary Braking distance (ft) Stopping sight distance Design speed (km/h) Perception / reaction distance (m) Metric Braking distance (m) Stopping sight distance Calculated (ft) Design (ft) Calculated (m) Note: Perception/reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/s 2 (3.4 m/s 2 ) used to determine calculated sight distance Stopping Sight Distances on Grades Increases or decreases in the level braking distances in Table A are warranted for grades of 3 percent or more. The braking distance formula(d 2 ) should be modified as follows: d 2 = d 2 = V 2 30 a (U.S. Customary) + G 32.2 V a (Metric) + G 9.81 Design (m) where: G = the grade expressed as a decimal (e.g. 6 percent is 0.06). Downgrades are negative and upgrades are positive. All other terms are as stated in the stopping sight distance equation. conditions. Design speed (mph) Table B provides the adjusted stopping sight distances due to grade assuming wet pavement Table B STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCES ON GRADES U.S. Customary Metric Stopping sight distance (ft) Stopping sight distance (m) Downgrades Upgrades Design Downgrades Upgrades speed 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9% (km/h) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%

12 2-5(14) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, Passing Sight Distance On two-lane highways, passing maneuvers in which faster vehicles overtake slower vehicles must be accomplished on lanes used by opposing traffic. Passing sight distance (PSD) is that distance needed for drivers to assess whether to initiate, continue and complete or abort such a passing maneuver. If passing is to be accomplished without interfering with an opposing vehicle, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead, clear of traffic, so the passing driver can decide whether to initiate and to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver. When appropriate, the driver can return to the right lane without completing the pass if he or she sees opposing traffic is too close when the maneuver is only partially completed. Minimum passing sight distances for use in design are based on the minimum sight distances presented in the MUTCD as warrants for no-passing zones on two-lane highways. Design practice should be most effective when it anticipates the traffic controls (i.e., passing and no-passing zone markings) that will be placed on the highways. The potential for conflicts in passing operations on two-lane highways is ultimately determined by the judgments of drivers that initiate and complete passing maneuvers in response to (1) the driver's view of the road ahead as provided by available passing sight distance and (2) the passing and no-passing zone markings. The design values for passing sight distance are presented in Table C. For this application, an eye height of 3.5 ft (1080 mm) and object height of 3.5 ft (1080 mm) are used. Design speed (mph) Table C PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES FOR THE DESIGN OF TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS U.S. Customary Assumed speeds (mph) Passed vehicle Passing vehicle Passing sight distance (ft) Design speed (km/h) Metric Assumed speeds (km/h) Passed vehicle Passing vehicle Passing sight distance (m) Passing sight distance applied in design should be based on a single passenger vehicle passing a single passenger vehicle. While there may be occasions to consider multiple passings where two or more vehicles pass or are passed it is not practical to assume such conditions under typical circumstances. Vertical alignment needs to be coordinated with horizontal alignment and cross section design so that, where passing sight distance is intended to be provided, it is available in all three dimensions. Conversely, where horizontal obstructions limit sight distances, providing a vertical alignment based on attaining passing sight distance may not be beneficial. The frequency and length of passing opportunities have an important influence on the level of service of two-lane highways. Passing opportunities should be provided frequently and be as long as practical, though subject to physical and cost limitations. In challenging terrain, it may be more economical to construct intermittent four-lane passing sections with stopping sight distance instead of two-lane sections with passing sight distance. See Provisions For Passing in Chapter 3. Analytical procedures are available in the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) to determine level of service considering the passing sight distance profile of a design alternative. These procedures can be used to assess the benefit of providing various extents of passing sight distance or 4-lane

13 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 2-5(15) passing sections. It should be noted that passing sections shorter than 400 to 800 feet have been found to contribute little to operational performance of 2-lane highways and should be excluded in these analyses Decision Sight Distance Although providing stopping sight distance is usually sufficient under ordinary circumstances, it can be inadequate when drivers must make complex decisions, when information is difficult to perceive or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required. In these circumstances, providing longer sight distances can allow drivers to make evasive maneuvers rather than a full stop, often involving less risk and being otherwise preferable to stopping. Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or difficult-toperceive condition, recognize the condition and its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and perform the maneuver safely and efficiently. Drivers need decision sight distances whenever there is likelihood for error in information reception, decision-making, or control actions. Examples of situations where these kinds of errors are prone to occur include interchange and intersection locations where unusual or unexpected maneuvers are required, changes in cross section (such as lane drops), and areas of concentrated demand where there is visual noise from competing sources of information (e.g. roadway elements, traffic control devices or extra-roadway distractions). The application of decision sight distance to highway design should be individually assessed at each location and subject to engineering judgment, feasibility, site constraints, and cost-effectiveness. For most practical purposes, providing a 10-second decision time from the initial detection point to the location of the critical feature, based on design speed is adequate. Use of values more than or less than 10 seconds may be judged appropriate as circumstances dictate. For design purposes, the height of eye is 3.5 ft (1080 mm); the height of object is considered a variable, depending on the nature of the condition. Possible applications for decision sight distance and the corresponding object height are shown by the following examples: 1. For deceleration lanes at freeway interchanges, decision sight distance should desirably be provided to the beginning of the striped gore area; the height of object should be 0 ft (0 mm). 2. For conditions where decision sight distance is to be applied and taillights would be the critical feature or source of information to the driver as may be the case at an intersection the height of object should be 2 ft (600 mm). 3. For a driveway or minor road where intersection sight distance criteria is not deemed fully applicable, decision sight distance can be applied as an alternative criterion; in these cases, the height of object should be 4.25 ft (1300 mm). In cases where providing 10-second decision sight distance is desired but not practical, special geometric, signing and/or delineation measures should be considered to aid in drivers perception and decision making Terrain Topography has great influence on the alignment and design speed of roads and streets. Although it affects horizontal alignment, its effects are more evident on vertical alignment. To characterize variations, topography is broken into three classifications for the purposes of highway design: level, rolling, and mountainous. Level terrain generally permits the construction of a highway grade that fits the existing topography with minimal vertical departure from adjacent ground elevation. Sight distances are generally long or can be made long without construction difficulty or major expense. Rolling terrain is characterized by highway grades requiring substantial soil excavation and fill operations to satisfy design criteria. In rolling terrain, natural slopes alternately rise and fall above and below the roadway grade. Occasional steep slopes may offer restrictions on vertical and horizontal alignments. Mountainous terrain describes dramatic landforms with abrupt vertical relief, usually predominated by exposed bedrock. Mountainous topography poses significant challenges to highway construction, often necessitating benching and terraced rock cuts to obtain adequate alignments. Natural ground elevations with

14 2-5(16) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 respect to the highway grade will be greatly variable and sometimes precipitous. Steep grades and sight distance restrictions are common. Terrain classifications should pertain to the general character of the specific route corridor, not the geographic area. For example, a road constructed in a mountainous area but traversing a level stretch of topography should be designed using controls for level terrain Crash Data A review of the crash history within project limits is an integral part of the design of any project. In particular, the designer should review high crash clusters, highway segment crash listings, and intersection crash listings provided by the Transportation Information System (TIS). The crash data is an important tool available to identify hazardous locations that may warrant corrections within the project limits. The TIS will provide data such as crash clusters, intersection or interchange crashes, roadway segment crashes, and crash characteristic listing reports. These data can then be used to develop intersection collision diagrams and strip collision diagrams, which are excellent analytical tools to identify safety deficiencies within the proposed project limits. The District Traffic Office also has information that can estimate the likely crash reduction of a proposed countermeasure and the benefit-cost ratio of the improvement. The MnDOT Office of Traffic Engineering can prepare crash report summations for many data elements on the crash form. These data are disseminated to the districts, cities, counties, and individuals upon request. The Districts are responsible for maintaining trunk highway crash records in their area and to identify and analyze all locations with high crash history. Some cities maintain up-to-date crash spot maps, by either the police department or the engineering department. The MnDOT Traffic Engineering Manual (TEM) Chapter 11, Traffic Crash Surveillance, provides a more thorough discussion of crash data availability and analysis.

15 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(1) CHAPTER 3 ALIGNMENT AND SUPERELEVATION INTRODUCTION Design of horizontal and vertical alignment has more influence in establishing the general characteristics of a highway than any other design consideration. Decisions on alignment will have a significant impact on both construction costs and vehicle operating costs. These decisions also impact the design speed selection. Controls for alignment and superelevation involve many technical terms, geometric concepts and mathematical operations. MnDOT's Technical Manual explains and documents these concepts and procedures. Included in the Technical Manual are discussions of: 1. Plane coordinate systems 2. Slopes 3. Azimuths and bearings 4. Traverse lines 5. Geometric principles of simple curves 6. Geometric principles of spiral curves 7. Stationing on curves 8. Computing grade lines 9. Geometrics of vertical curves 10. Earthwork computations HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT Designers should generally attempt to create alignments that will provide the shortest distance between two established control points. Although a straight line is the shortest distance, it is rarely physically, environmentally, or economically practical. Terrain conditions, physical features, and right of way limitations all contribute to the need for occasional directional changes. The resulting configuration of tangent and curve sections affects safe vehicle operating speeds, sight distances, opportunities for passing, and highway capacity. Horizontal and vertical alignments should complement each other, therefore, they should be designed concurrently General Criteria Design speed, which is based on various combinations of functional classification, traffic volumes, terrain conditions, and environmental and community values, is the principal factor affecting the design of horizontal alignment. Natural, cultural, and community resources also play a significant role in horizontal alignment. Although some criteria are quite explicit, others cannot be defined specifically. Designers must make judgments based on local existing conditions. Guidelines for some of these decisions are outlined below. 1. Alignment should be as straight as possible within physical and economic constraints. A general rule of thumb is to achieve a flowing line with a smooth, natural appearance on the land and graceful, gradual horizontal and vertical transitions. On divided highways, a flowing line that conforms generally to natural contours is preferable to one with long tangents that slashes through terrain. On two-lane highways, weigh these features against the need to provide passing opportunities. The criteria for the desired frequency of passing opportunities are presented in Chapter Alignment should be consistent. Try to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long tangents and sudden changes from gently to sharply curving alignment. Consistency of operating speed should meet the expectancy of drivers throughout the distinct segments of the project. Avoid the use of minimum radii wherever possible. 3. Curves with high crash rates on existing highways may require flattening. Where curve flattening is not cost effective, consider mitigating measures such as shoulder widening, clear zone widening, inslope flattening, traffic barrier installation, etc.

16 3-2(2) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, Curves with small deflection angles (5 degrees or less) should be at least 500 ft (150 m) long to avoid the appearance of a kink in the roadway. Increase a length of curve 100 ft (30 m) for every one-degree decrease in deflection angle. 5. Use tangents on high, long hills where feasible. This design compensates for the difficulties of driver perception on the extent of a horizontal curve. 6. Avoid horizontal curvature on bridges when possible; however, when curvature is unavoidable, place the entire bridge on a simple curve as flat as physical conditions permit. Ending or beginning a curve on or near a bridge can present design and construction problems with superelevation transition. When the bridge deck becomes wet or icy, the superelevation may adversely affect traffic operations Types of Curvature and Alignment Sections 230 through 234 of MnDOT s Technical Manual describe the methods for computing the various types of curvatures Simple Curves A simple curve has a constant radius to achieve the desired deflection without the use of an entering or exiting transition. Because of their simplicity and ease of design, survey, and construction, simple curves are the most frequently used type of curve Compound Curves Compound curves consist of two or more adjacent curves without a tangent section intervening between them. They offer transition curvature for the vehicle path, but the change in curvature can mislead the driver. When designing compound curves, the guidelines listed below should be followed. 1. Compound curves can be used for intersection curb radii, ramps, and loops, but should be avoided on mainline. 2. When topography or right of way restrictions make the use of compound curves advantageous, a sharper circular curve should be encountered before a flatter curve. The radius of the flatter circular curve should not be more than 1.5 times that of the sharper curve Spiral Curves When designed properly, spiral curves can provide the ideal vehicular transition into a circular curve. Spiral curves are also advantageous because they fit the transition length needed to develop the full design superelevation without the need to develop any transition on the adjacent tangent sections. With the continuous advance of technology, spiral curves are becoming easier to design, survey, and construct; however, due to their complexity, their use should be limited to highways with design speeds of over 50 mph (80 km/h) and on curves with degrees of curve greater than 3 degrees (radii less than 580 m) Reverse Curves Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. To allow the driver to comfortably negotiate a reversal and to properly develop the required superelevation on both curves, a tangent of sufficient length should be inserted between the two reverse curves. The minimum tangent length to avoid an immediate reversal of the superelevation slope can be computed using the following equation: 0.67L L 2 + 2(tangent runout) + 50 ft (U.S. Customary) 0.67L L 2 + 2(tangent runout) + 15 m (Metric) Where: L 1 and L 2 = the superelevation runoff lengths for each curve

17 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(3) Broken-Back Curves A broken-back curve is a curve that contains a tangent of less than 300 m (1000 ft) between two curves in the same direction. Because this type of curve violates driver expectancy and is unpleasant in appearance, it should be avoided by substituting a single longer curve where practical Superelevation and Side Friction When moving on a circular path, a vehicle is subject to centrifugal force that acts away from the center of the curve. Vehicle weight, roadway superelevation, and side friction between the tires and the roadway counterbalance this force. If the vehicle is not skidding, all forces are in equilibrium as the following equation represents V 2 R = V2 15R e + f = v2 = 0.067V2 = V2 gr R 15R e + f = v2 = V2 = V2 gr R 127R (U.S. Customary) (Metric) Where: e = rate of superelevation, ft/ft (m/m) f = side friction factor v = vehicle speed, ft/s (m/s) V = vehicle speed, mph (km/h) g = gravitational constant 32.2 ft/s 2 (9.81 m/s 2 ) R = radius of curve, ft (m) Tables A and B list side friction factors (f) as derived from the formula above for rural and urban roads, respectively. They allow a reasonable margin of safety for wet pavements and poor tire condition and incorporate the element of driver discomfort. Standard superelevation rates are established to provide safe operation through a range of design speeds. Because of the winter icing conditions in Minnesota, the maximum permissible superelevation for design is 0.06 ft/ft (0.06 m/m). Several methods exist to determine the maximum degrees of curve (minimum radii of curve) by distributing superelevation and side friction. To reduce the frequency and amount of superelevation in built-up urban areas, different methods are used to find the maximum degrees of curve (minimum radii of curve) on low-speed roads than on high-speed roads. Drivers, through conditioning, have developed a higher threshold of discomfort on low-speed urban streets when reacting to the outward pull of centrifugal force on horizontal curves than on high-speed roads. The application of superelevation to various roadway cross sections is discussed in depth in Section

18 3-2(4) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, Maximum Degree (Minimum Radius) of Horizontal Curvature Once the values for design speed, superelevation, and side friction have been determined, the maximum degree (minimum radius) of horizontal curvature can be derived. Tables A and B list design speeds, side friction factors, maximum degrees of curve, and minimum curve radii based on e = 0.06 ft/ft (0.06 m/m). The degrees of curve listed are maximum values and the radii are minimum values. The designer should strive to attain flatter curves wherever possible. Because crash frequency increases on curves as the degree of curve increases and the radii decreases, and because maximum allowable degrees (minimum allowable radii) of curvature may not provide minimum stopping sight distances, a designer may have to use degrees of curve smaller (radii of curvature larger) than the required maximum (minimum) at certain locations. (See Section ) The minimum radius of curvature can be calculated with the following formula. R min = R min = V 2 15(e max +f max ) V 2 127(e max +f max ) (U.S. Customary) (Metric) Where: R min = minimum radius, ft (m) V = vehicle speed, mph (km/h) e max = maximum superelevation rate of curve, ft/ft (m/m) f max = maximum side friction The radius of curvature can be converted to the degree of curve (U.S. Customary only) by: D = R (U.S. Customary) Where: D = degree of curvature, (o) R = radius, (ft) The minimum mainline radius of curvature for freeways in urban and rural areas is 1910 ft (580 m), which corresponds to a maximum mainline curvature of 3. Larger degrees (smaller radii) of curvature should be avoided whenever possible.

19 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(5) Design Speed (mph) Table A (U.S. Customary) Rural Roadways Limiting Values of f and the Associated Maximum Curvature e = 0.06 ft/ft (calculate new R or D for e < 0.06 ft/ft) Limiting Value of Friction Factor Maximum Degree of Curve (rounded) Minimum Radius (ft) (rounded) R = f D max 15(e+f) ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 2500 V2 Table A (Metric) Rural Roadways Limiting Values of f and the Associated Minimum Radii e = 0.06 m/m (calculate new R for e < 0.06 m/m) Design Speed (km/h) Limiting Value of Friction Factor Minimum Radius (m) (rounded) R = f 127(e+f) V2

20 3-2(6) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 Design Speed (mph) Table B (U.S. Customary) Urban Roadways Limiting Values of f and the Associated Maximum Curvature e = 0.06 ft/ft (calculate new R or D for e < 0.06 ft/ft) Limiting Value of Friction Factor Maximum Degree of Curve (rounded) Minimum Radius (ft) (rounded) R = f D max 15(e+f) ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 2500 V2 Table B (Metric) Urban Roadways Limiting Values of f and the Associated Minimum Radii e = 0.06 m/m (calculate new R for e < 0.06 m/m) Design Speed (km/h) Limiting Value of Friction Factor Minimum Radius (m) (rounded) R = f 127(e+f) V2

21 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(7) Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves Obstructions along the inside of curves will limit the available sight distance. Examples of obstructions include retaining walls, median barriers, cut slopes, trees, berms, buildings, bridge piers, and railings. Depending upon the selected sight distance criteria, it may be necessary to remove the obstruction or adjust the horizontal alignment to attain the necessary sight distance. Each curve must be examined individually. Chapter 2 presents the definition, derivation, and values for stopping, passing, and decision sight distance. Figure A is only applicable when sight distance (S) is less than or equal to (<) the length of curve (L). Figure C applies for S < L and S > L. Figures D, E, and F apply when S < L. Figure A provides the information needed to determine if sufficient horizontal lateral clearance is available for selected sight distances (see Tables A, C and E for proper sight distance criteria). The figure will yield the required horizontal lateral clearance from the centerline of the inside lane to the obstruction. Figure C provides an example of a scaled (graphical) method, which may be useful when a more cursory analysis is sufficient. If a vertical curve occurs in conjunction with a horizontal curve, the standard methodology may not apply, and an individual assessment or a special scaled or equation-based solution may be necessary. The following list contains the applications of the sight distance criteria to horizontal curvature: 1. Stopping sight distance is the minimum design for all highways. Tables A and B provide the necessary sight distance information. Figures B, C and D provide the information needed to determine if sufficient stopping sight distance is available past a lateral obstruction. 2. Passing sight distance is sufficient to provide a passing opportunity on a two-lane highway. Table C provides the necessary sight distance information. Figure E provides the necessary design information for the case of a lateral obstruction. As drivers may be reluctant to pass on horizontal curves even when adequate sight distance is available, it may not be warranted to provide passing sight distances at great additional costs, even if they are necessary to meet the frequency of passing opportunities discussed in Section Provision of decision sight distance should be considered on or near a horizontal curve whenever a driver is confronted with a complex, unexpected or difficult-to-perceive condition. Section provides the necessary decision sight distance information. Figure F provides the necessary design information for the case where a lateral sight obstruction is an element of the situation being addressed. Access control or right of way easements may be required to ensure that a future sight obstruction does not violate the necessary offset.

22 3-2(8) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 HORIZONTAL LATERAL CLEARANCE (S < L) Figure A (U.S. Customary)

23 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(9) HORIZONTAL LATERAL CLEARANCE (S < L) Figure A (Metric)

24 3-2(10) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE (Scaled Solution) Figure B (Dual Unit)

25 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(11) FOR FIGURES C, D, E, and F S = SIGHT DISTANCE, ft (m) R = RADIUS OF CENTERLINE INSIDE LANE, ft (m) D = DEGREE OF CURVE (ENGLISH ONLY) M = DISTANCE FROM CENTERLINE INSIDE LANE TO TO SIGHT OBSTRUCTION, ft (m) L = LENGTH OF CURVE, ft (m) When S is equal to or less than L, When S is greater than L, M = M 1 + M 2 M = M 1 = R 1 cos S (Dual Unit) R M 1 = R 1 cos L (Dual Unit) R M = M 1 = R 1 cos SD 200 (U.S. Customary) M 1 = R 1 cos LD M 2 = S L 2 M 2 = S L 2 (U.S. Customary) 200 sin L sin LD R (Dual Unit) (U.S. Customary) 200 HORIZONTAL LATERAL CLEARANCE (Equation Method) Figure C (Dual Unit)

26 3-2(12) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure D (U.S. Customary) STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure D (Metric)

27 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(13) PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure E (U.S. Customary) PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure E (Metric)

28 3-2(14) MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL NOVEMBER, 2012 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure F (U.S. Customary) DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE AND LATERAL CLEARANCE (S L) Figure F (Metric)

29 NOVEMBER, 2012 MnDOT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL 3-2(15) Divided Roadways Narrow Medians A Narrow Median is defined as being less than 13 ft (4 m) wide. A single survey base line should be used for horizontal curvature, normally the centerline of one lane. The profile grade line should be the inside edge of each shoulder. The alignment results in the use of concentric curves where the center of the curve is the same, but the curve radii and length of curve vary. Figure A illustrates the layout. The P.C. stationing will be the same, but two equations will be necessary to reestablish common stationing at the P.T Wide Medians If the median is relatively wide or variable, each roadway should have separate horizontal and vertical controls, even if there is a single survey base line. Figure B illustrates this layout. Equations are necessary at both the P.C. and P. T. for both roadways to maintain the common stationing of the survey line Independent Roadways For very wide medians or where terrain allows, independent roadways on a divided highway offer many practical and aesthetic advantages. Two survey base lines are usually used, and each roadway is designed independently from the other. This type of design results in a variable width of median and pavement profile grades at different levels. This results in more pleasant and serviceable driving, reduced headlight glare and the opportunity to use a flatter grade on the ascent than on the descent for each direction of travel. The following are general considerations for an independent alignment: Side of Hills - When a divided highway is located along the side of a hill for an appreciable distance, it is usually less costly and more desirable to construct pavements at different levels. However, half-cut and half-fill roadway sections should be avoided whenever possible. A roadway section completely in cut or completely in fill is desirable. See Figure C(1) SIDE SLOPES. Narrow Valleys or Stream Banks - Where a highway parallels a narrow valley or a stream, independent roadway design may permit these features to be included in the area between the roadways. See Figure C(2) STREAMS, BANKS OR VALLEYS. Ridges - Under certain conditions where the highway parallels a ridge, it is possible to include the crest of the ridge in the area between the roadways. See Figure C(3) RIDGES. Aesthetic Features - An important responsibility of the design engineer is the preservation of the existing natural features such as rock outcrops, timber stands, clumps of shrubs, streams, overlooks or grassy slopes which may constitute an asset to the completed highway. See Figure C(4) TIMBER STANDS. Long, flowing graceful alignment for each independent roadway should be the aim in designing a divided highway, and advantage should be taken of every favorable topographic condition to attain this goal. Economics - Savings in construction and maintenance costs will usually result by using independent roadway design for the typical terrain situations that have been discussed. Right-of-way costs may be higher but may be justified by the aesthetic values realized.