Chapter 2: ENVIRONMENTAL DIVERSITY AND SETTLEMENTS

Transcription

1 Chapter 2: ENVIRONMENTAL DIVERSITY AND SETTLEMENTS

2 INTRODUCTION The geographic and ecological basis of Indian History and Culture will help us to understand the true significance of the physical and cultural diversity of the country based on deeper social, economic and technological differences, which are the results of a slow penetration of higher cultures in different parts and at different periods (Subbarao 1958:3). Subbarao (1958) in his classification of the regions of India had designated Assam (coinciding with the Brahmaputra Valley) as an area of 'relative isolation' I. He further stated that: The whole pattern of development of material culture in India may be defined as one of the horizontal expansion of the higher cultures, leading to a displacement, contraction and isolation of the lower cultures in different parts of the country at different periods and at different cultural levels (Subbarao 1958:12). However, this does not hold true, as a study of the micro-regions indicates cultural diversity from the prehistoric period onwards. It also questions the movement of a "higher culture" from the western part of the country eastwards. The Brahmaputra Valley is characterised by environmental diversity and the interdependence of the communities inhabi..ting this region since prehistoric times on the diverse resource base. The present chapter will discuss three inter-related issues; firstly, the several environmental parameters 2 in the Brahmaputra that have resulted in the formation of diverse eco-zones, which possess different kinds of soils, have access to forests and climatic variation. The issue of environmental diversity is significant as scholars have tended to look at only one agrarian zone such as the Ganga plains for the emergence of agriculture leading to a complex social and cultural 1 Subba Rao defines the areas of relative isolation as those areas which are distant from the main highways for the movement of peoples and cultures. 2 This section on environmental diversity is distinct from the section on 'environmental background of the Brahmaputra ' in the introduction as it discussed the physical features of the region, but here an attempt has been made to categorise these features according to the three eco-zones- eastern, central and western. The division of the region into three environmental zones has been done as it forms the background against which the various settlements, communities, agricultural processes, craft production, etc. would be studied. 52

3 pattern in the study of Ancient Indian History. The second issue is the diverse pattern of settlement in the, as the region witnessed the emergence of settlements since prehistoric times within these environmental zones. The third issue is the complexity that is visible in the pattern of settlements as the environment has a bearing on the settlements. This chapter will look at the relationship forged between the environment and the communities, which is complex and is varied through time and forms a part of a larger social process. Such a discussion on the interaction of a range of communities with the environment is essential as it provides an insight on how people organised themselves in a particular environment in relation to their resources. I ENVIRONMENT AL DIVERSITY The region can be categorised into diverse zones on the basis of the land use pattern, climatic conditions and the availability of natural resources. The epigraphic data dated to the post 5 th century period also refer to several environmental zones such as thickly forested areas, tributaries, wet lands and drier hill areas. The environmental diversity in the Brahmaputra VaIley led to the formation of diverse ecozones that resulted in the emergence of a variety of ecological-agrarian zones and diverse communities resulting in the emergence of environment-community relationship based on a diverse resource base. The focus of scholars such as RS Sharma (1992) and'romila Thapar (2002) has been on the study of one core agrarian zone that is mainly the Ganga but in contrast the Brahmaputra Valley displays several environmental zones leading to the emergence of a unique agricultural system with a variety of agricultural practices and cultures. This section has attempted to understand the diversity in the environment leading to the emergence of such diverse zones. As seen in chapter I, the Brahmaputra river system leads to diversity in climatic conditions, land and soil, resulting in the diversity of resources. Owing to its vast catchment area the Brahmaputra River waters a vast expanse of land. It is divided into three parts, Tibetan or Upper Brahmaputra, Lower and Deltaic Brahmaputra. The River Brahmaputra and its extensive network of tributaries and the Himalayan mountain system bestow this region 53

4 with its wet monsoonal climate, dense forests that lead to its rich fertile soil and a prolific growth of wild varieties of plants. This environmental diversity has in tum led to the fonnation of several ecosystems. It is possible to divide the Brahmaputra Valley into three different ecological zones; the Eastern, Central and Western Brahmaputra Valley and look at the variation in their environmental features and the diverse resources available. Chapter 3 analyses how these environmental zones influenced the communities and the emergence of an agricultural system comprising shifting cultivation, foraging as well as settled cultivation. The river Brahmaputra flows through several ecological zones where several communities inhabit and it influences their culture. Geographers have made a distinction between the tributaries of the northern and southern bank of the Brahmaputra Valley. The northern bank comprises the tributaries; Dihang, Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Bharali, Dhansiri, Pagladia, Manas, Sankosh and Tista while the Noa-Dihang, Burhi- Dihang, Disang, Dikow, Jhanji, Dhansiri, Kapili, Digaru, Dudhnai and Krishnai flow on the southern bank. The Eastern Brahmaputra Valley Administratively the eastern Brahmaputra Valley compnses of the seven districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh and Tinsukia. It is watered by several tributaries such as the Lohit, Dibang, Dihang, Burhi Dihing, Na Dihing, Subansiri, Disang, Dirai, Sessa, Kakadoonga, Dhansiri, Rangamati, and Dikrong (Map, Singh 1987:309). Looking at the soil composition and the variation in land it is seen that the Eastern Brahmaputra Valley is primarily a rice growing region and is surrounded by jhum cultivated lands. These are forest areas where millets, rice, maize and vegetables are grown. There are several pockets of wet lands which provide a habitat for several species of plants and animals. This zone has several lakes and ponds, swamps and marshes along with numerous tanks and reservoirs. (See Table 1.2) These wet lands provide a rich resource of aquatic plants along with a variety of fish. The study of a variety of zones in a particular region is important in an agricultural system comprising of foraging, shifting and settled cultivation as opposed to mono-cropping which 54

5 implies that the variation in the environment led to a diversity in plants and other resources available. For instance, people living in close proximity to the forest areas, harvested forest products whereas those who inhabited zones that had access to wetlands relied on aquatic products. The Central Brahmaputra Valley Darrang, Sonitpur, Morigaon and Nagaon are the hour district in central. It is crisscrossed by several tributaries such as the Bora, Jia Bharali, Belsiri, Kolong, Jamuna, Kapili, Daiyang, Barapani, Kiling, Digaru, Barganga, Gabharu, Panchnoi, Jia Dhansiri and Bamadi. The soil type in the central is also similar to the soil found in the Eastern, as it is mainly made up of new alluvium and the adjoining areas are made up of old alluvium. This part of the has access to small pockets of rough grazing land for animals apart from the rice growing fields. As far as the land capability is concerned, the is made up of good land, but its surrounding land is suitable for forestry and grazing. The central part of the is primarily arable land with pockets of reserved forests and large tracts of scrub and grass. The fertile agricultural tracts are surrounded by tropical semi-evergreen and tropical wet evergreen forests. The access to forest produce lo is much less in the central part of the as compared to the other two zones. The is marked by riparian forests I I, but on the northern and southern bank of'the river, it is surrounded by evergreen forests. The central zone mainly experiences hot, humid monsoon climate and receives an annual rainfall of ems. Another distinct feature of the central part of the is that it is wet for more than six months in a year. The Western Brahmaputra Valley The western part of the Valley has been divided into seven districts of Dhubri, Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Goalpara, Barpeta, Nalban and Kamrup. The major and minor tributaries of the Brahmaputra found in this zone are Kulsi, Dudhnoi, Krishnai, Jinjiram, Champamati, 10 The assessment of the forest revenue made in is below five rupees per hectare of forest land. 11 This category of forest occurs along the banks of the larger hilly rivers and streams. They are characterised by a few large trees with a large number of shrubs, both evergreen and deciduous with grass on the ground characterise this type of forest. The Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo) and Khair (Acacia catechu) are the characteristic trees of such type. On the chars and chapories (sandy islets and tracts) of the Brahmaputra and its larger tributaries, pines like Jhau (Tamarix dioica) shrubs occur abundantly. 55

6 Saralbhanga, Sonkosh, Gadadhar, Gangadhar, Baralia, Pagladia, Pahumara, Betki, Manas, Ai and Puthimari. The soil type in the western is similar to the soil found in the Eastern, as it is mainly made up of the new alluvium and the adjoining areas are made up of the old alluvium. Apart from the rice growing fields it has access to small pockets of rough grazing land for animals. As far as the composition of nutrients is concerned, the western Brahmaputra has a high level of Nitrogen, low level of phosphorous and medium level of Potassium. The land in the has been defined as 'good land', but its surroundings have been defined as 'land with severe limitations, suitable for forestry and grazing,12. The western Brahmaputra has large tracts of arable land with pockets of scrub and grass along with a few belts of 'reserved forests'. This zone has access to tropical semievergreen and tropical wet evergreen forests. The western Brahmaputra is marked by hot, humid monsoon climate. Having looked at the variation in the three zones it can be concluded that most locations would have proximity to a variety of natural habitats. Gadgil and Guha (1995: 13) have studied the various kinds of habitats as they argue that foragers relied on living resources i.e. both flora and fauna acquired in their natural forms. A study of Neolithic settlements in the Brahmaputra Valley shows that these were flanked by hilly areas and plains (Ray 1987:300). No stratified sites have been found in the area, but the sites of Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are two important sites situated on hills which have yielded stratified Neolithic deposits. A study of the settlement pattern reveals that the Neolithic population was thinly spread out in the and hill regions. The hillsides near river banks were the preferred location for habitation as it provided protection as well as water for sustenance. The ethnographic data on the present day communities too show a similar trend of preference for the hili slopes for habitation in contrast to the piains as we wiil see in chapter 4. The communities inhabiting these settlements practiced shifting cultivation along with food gathering and hunting/fishing due to the availability of a wide variety of wild plants and animals and also due to the access to water bodies such as streams or marshy areas. 12 This zone is surrounded by Hapleustalfs, Paleusalfs and Rhodustalfs, known as the red sandy soils. 56

7 Table 2.1: Three environmental zones and its impact on settlements Environmental N arne of Zone D istricts(pr es ent name) Western Brahmaputra Valley Central Brahmaputra Valley D hubri, K okrajhar, B ongaigaon, G oalpara, B arpeta, N albari, K amrup Darr ang, Sc: mitpur, M ongaon, Na gaon Tributari es Kulsi, Dudhnoi, Krishnai, Jinjiram, Champ am ati, Saralbhan ga, Sonkosh, Gadadhar, Gangadha r, Baralia, Pagladia, Kaldia, Pahumara, Betki, Manas, Ai, Puthimari Kolong, Jamuna, Kapili, Daiyang, Barapani, Kiling, Digaru, Climate Vegetatio Soil n hot, humid deciduous new monsoon forest alluvium climate Sal, and Riverine adjoinin forest g areas compns e of old alluvium hot,, humid Semi- new monsoon evergreen alluvium climate forests and adjoinin g compns e of old Neolithic Location of Location of settlemen grants temples ts (based on their find spots) Sarutaru, Goalpara, Marakdola Gauhati Yogigopha:, Rani, Paglatek, Loharghat Phulbari,, Teteliya, Sri Surya Pahai-, Kamakhya Mahadev pahar, hills, Madan-Kaindeva, Sarania Asvaklahta, hills, Deulgovinda, Nunmati Manikarnesvara, and Sonapur Siddhesvari, Pingalesvara, lkamakbya Daojali Nagaon, Akaslganga Hading Tezpur, Gachtal Darrang, RaIban Golaghat Na-Nath-than Mahadeosal Matharban Kawaiman 57

8 Eastern Brahmaputra Valley L akhimpur L Ihemaji, G,olaghat, J( xhat, S i!hsagar, D ibrugarh aj 1d T insukia Barganga, Jia Bharali, Gabharu, Panchnoi, Jia Dhansiri, Bamadi Lohit, Dibang, Dihang, Subansiri, Rangamati, Burhi- Dihing, Na Dihing, Disang, Dirai, Sessa, Kakadoon ga, Dhansiri, Dikrong alluvium Mikirati Badganga Devasthan Budhagosainthan Deopani humid, Evergreen nee Lahowal, Sibsagar Deoparvat sub- and seml- growmg Naharkhat tropical evergreen land lya, monsoon forests. surround Barkhamti climate ( Agaru, ed by gaon northern bamboo, jhum (Dibrugar bank) hot, cane and lands h) humid, reeds monsoon climate (southern bank) Source: Atlas of Forest Resources of India; 1976; Watershed Atlas of India; 1990; Atlas of Agricultural Resources of India; 1980; Thorner, Daniel Ecological and Agrarian Regions of south Asia, circa 1930; OUP: Karachi. Sarma, D; 1930; Kamrnpsasnavali, Assam: Publication Board., 58

9 The environmental characteristics of the eastern, central and western Brahmaputra Valley reveal a variety of soil types, forest resources and climatic conditions (table 2.1). The emergence of a diverse settlement pattern can be seen against the backdrop of the ecological zones seen in section I (table 2.1). A survey of the environmental diversity in the eastern, central and western Brahmaputra displays a range of habitats in the Brahmaputra. The forest products available to the inhabitants in these zones are both minor and major. In the next section we will see the emergence of diverse settlements (table 2.1) in these three zones and also the bearings of the environment on the settlement pattern in section III. II COMPLEXITY OF SETTLEMENTS The Brahmaputra displays the presence of a mosaic of settlements resulting from the environmental variations. There is some amount of archaeological data that is available, but there is an absence of extensive excavations which make it difficult to pull out a single thread for the construction of the settlement pattern within these zones but there are several strands and layers that add complexity to it. Bridget and Raymond Allchin (2003) have attempted to follow an alternative approach in the study of prehistory. They emphasise the need for considering the past cultures in their totality as an alternative to the isolated study of artefacts, their typology and technology. Artefacts are seen as only one aspect of any culture. This requires a knowledge and understanding about the ecological relationship between a human community or group and its environmental context. The settlements can be defined on the basis of the available archaeological data, pre Ahom epigraphs and the structural remains belonging to the post fifth century period, Differences can be seen in the nature of settlements that cut-across periods. A number of raw materials were used by the inhabitants for the preparation of tools that were tapped locally. The three zones also vary in their size as the central Brahmaputra is. 59

10 smaller in size as compared to the western part (see map of the three environmental zones). The manner in which the resources were utilised also varies in each zone. During the pre-ahom period, the epigraphs (table 2.3) are silent, about the eastern zone as there is no proliferation of agricultural settlements through the land-grants. There is a single grant that was made during the early part of the 5 th century AD. There may have been a shift in settlements to the western and central zones. Even the temple architecture (table 2.4) dating to the pre-ahom period as seen in the Western and Central zone is absent in the eastern. This may be due to several reasons that hinder the emergence of settlements, as the eastern zone is primarily made up of alluvium land and is surrounded by land that is fit for jhum cultivators; it has a relatively thick forest cover (Atlas of Ecological and Agrarian Regions of South Asia: 1930) which may have been vital for foraging and shifting cultivation. The eastern part is also prone to floods, (Singh 1986:309) while the central and western part of the is protected by the outcrop of rocks. The tributaries in the eastern part are notorious as they frequently change courses such as the river Manas and Dhansiri. Table 2.2: Diversity of Neolithic settlements with diverse tool types Name of the Zone finds Settlement Sarutaru Marakdola Western Brahmaputra Western Brahmaputra references. ground stone celts (Ray 1987:295) shouldered axes, wheel (Medhi 1991:134) made pottery of Kaolin clay Rani, Loharghat, Teteliya, Kamakhya and Sarania hills Goalpara Daojali Hading Biswanath Western Brahmaputra Western Brahmaputra. n vauey Central Brahmaputra Central Brahma utra tanged or shouldered celts, (Ray 1987:294) flat celts, small celts, quadrangular adzes and chisels tanged and flat celts, adzes, (Ray 1987:294) rectangular broad - axes facetted tools, round butt (KAS 1984:47) axe, axe with broad cutting edge, splayed axe, shouldered tools and cord marked ottery celts, grooved hammer (Ray 1987:293) 60

11 stones, simple hammer stones, grinding hammer stones Lahowal, Eastern Brahmaputra flat celts, tanged celts, (Ray 1987:293) Naharkatiya, quadrangular axes, chisels Barkhamtigaon and miniature celts Settlements in the Western Brahmaputra Valley The Neolithic settlements in the Western Brahmaputra are found at Sarutaru, Marakdola, Rani, Loharghat, Teteliya, Kamakhya hills, Sarania hills, Nunmati and Sonapur (table 2.2). These settlements are situated in the midst of deciduous forests (table 2.1) and the pre-historic inhabitants would have had access to resources from such an environment. The site of Sarutaru 13, situated at a distance of 25 km from Guwahati has revealed nine specimens of ground celts made of slate. These tools have been used for several agricultural purposes. The site of Marakdola is situated at a distance of one kilometre from Sarutaru and has revealed a number of shouldered celts and terracotta objects and wheel-made Kaolin pottery with cord impressions from the shoulder to the base (Medhi 1991: 134). The excavations from Rani, Kamakhya, Loharghat, Teteliya and Sarania hills have revealed tanged and shouldered celts, flat celts, small celts, and quadrangular axes made of Shale, mudstone and Phylite (Ray 1987:294).' Not only did the inhabitants utilise the available plant resources in the western zone for their subsistence but also the utilisation of raw materials such as slate, shale and mudstone. The pottery of Kamakhya hills displays grey and brown ware while pottery at Marakdola is wheel-made Kaolin pottery (Medhi 1991: 134), which can be categorised into four styles viz. cord marked, incised, stamped and plain fine red ware (Medhi 1992:237). 13 Sarutaru was excavated by the Anthropology department in 1973, headed by S.N. Rao. 61

12 .- Chapter 2: Environmental Diversity and Settlements Picture 2.1: Neolithic tools in western Brahmaputra collected by G.D Walker (pitt rivers museum, Oxford) Of the sherds discovered, 595 were of cord impressed variety, 19 of stamped dull variety, and II of brick red variety (Sharma 1996:90). Pottery manufacturing may have been done for the storage of plant resources or cooking purposes. The land grants defined the settlements in the western Brahmaputra in a distinct manner as each piece of land granted was located within a distinct ecological zone. The Pushpabhadra grant :135 line 21) and the Guakuci grant of IndrapaIa 14 It refers to land that yieided ten thousand drunas at paddy i981:i38 line 43). The land was surrounded by Nokkadebbaripalagovabhabhoga Alipana cornfields 1981: 138 line 47), water bank of the Sowadi tank 1981: 138 line 48), Khaggalicamyala Jo/t- 1981: 138 line 51) and the southern bank of the Jaugallanadi 1981: 138 line 49) and on the southern boundary it is surrounded by the Neklwdeuli Jolt-; 1981: 138 line 49-50), Singad joli;, 1981: 138 line 50) on the southeastern boundary is Dijjarati-Hadl{Sarma 1981:138 line 50), to the south is the dry river BekldqSarma 1981: 138 line 50) and on the south-western boundary is the Khaggall1Sarma 1981: 138 line 51). The plot ofland granted is surrounded by the Parall 1981 :138 line 52) madhure:-as'vattha 1981: 139 line 53)and Suva"!adaru 198!: 139 line 43-44) trees. The inhabitants residing in this zone had 62

13 1981: 101 lines 58-59) are two such instances where the land granted to the donee is located in the midst of diverse plant resources and landscape. Most grants refer to the diverse nature of the settlements, as the term vastu-kedarsthala-jala-gopraciiara 1981: 100 line 38) indicates. According to the Monier-Williams dictionary the term vastu refers to the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or dwellingplace, habitation, homestead, house. The term kedara refers to a field or meadow; especially one under water, the term sthala refers to a heap of artificially raised earth, mound, soil, ground, place, spot, dry land, while the term jala refers to water and gopracara refers to pasturage for cattle. The agricultural plots are surrounded by a number of trees IS, which appear to be greater in variety as compared to the central zone. The wetness in the region is consistent in all the three zones as the epigraphs refer to natural rivers, streams and ponds, which are visible in all the three zones. The western zone has mainly references to Pura settlements or city, barring two references to Guhe!vara Digdolav,:ddhagrama and Vainamagrama, as is also seen in the case of the central zone. Chronologically, the western part of the, witnessed the earliest grants, where. donations were made of a cave, as'rama and copper bell (table 2.3) in contrast to the lands granted for cultivation in the central zone and the donations of images in the, eastern zone. However, the occurrence of the epigraphs in the western zone continues till the 12th century. There are variations in the size of the epigraphs. The epigraphs are predominantly medium (five epigraphs) in size barring those (four epigraphs), which do not refer to any agricultural tracts being granted are mainly short. There are also two instances of the revival of old charters as in the case of the Dubi plate of Bhaskaravarnia,- access to a diversity of plants which vary in each zone and also put to use in a variety of ways. Apart from the piant resources there are numerous sources of water, some m~y have been artificially created. 15 Trees such as amri or mango tree 1981: 101 line 58), Sakhotaka vrksa 1981: 101 line 55) jack fruit and the Jingini vrksa 1981: 101 line 55) Tripatraka vrks-a' 1981 :70 line 52), JambiTvrksa 1981 :70 line 54 ) or black-berry tree, vetasavrks'a (Saim~ 1981 :70 line 53), Kadamba '1981: 1 01 ), tambuta Howraghat plate of Balavarma III 1981:67 line 6-7), krsnagarn or black aloe trees Howraghat plate of Balavarma III 1981: 67 line 54), Sbrkaramula; Su~ikuci grant of Ratnap1i1a 1981:90 line 59), hi;jala vrk.~a Sualkuci Grant of Ratnap1i'!a 1981:90 line 60), falmaltfjrksa Sualkuci grant of RatnapaJa 1981 :90 line 61), coraka vrksa Sualkuci Grant of Ratnapa1a 1981:90 line 62), varn~av:~a Sualkuci grant of RatnapaJa (S~a 1981:90 line 63)~ 63

14 Nidhanpur and the Copper plate of Bhaskaravarma which is absent in the other two zones. On examining the data that can be sieved out of the temple remains in the western zone, a few interesting observations can be drawn out regarding the location of temples which are largely situated on hills for instance the temples at Mornoi, Y ogigopha, Madan Kamdeva, Kamalffiya, Sri Surya Pallar, As~aklanta, Manikarnes~ara, Deulgovinda and, Mahadev Pahar. The Phulbari structure is the only exception as it is situated at the foot of a hill. There is also the presence of boulders and caverns in the temple sites such as at y ogigopha There is not much variety in the kind of material used for construction as it alternates between the commonly used basalite stone and brick. There is no consistency in the number of temples that appear at a given site. They are largely single structures, except at Mornoi, where there is evidence of a temple complex. The temples are devoid of elaborate ornamental decoration and intricate temple planning as compared to the well-ornamented structures of the central zone. However, there are stone images that are either found within the garbhagrha as in the Mornoi temple or are strewn about in the vicinity of the temple. Settlements in the Central Brahmaputra Valley A significant site discovered in the Central Brahmaputra is that of Daojali Hading l6 which has been extensively surveyed revealing data for stone tools and pottery (Ray 1987:296). Located in present day North Cachar hill district of Assam, which is situated near the river Lanting, a tributary of the River Barak of southern Assam. Several surface findings such as axes, adzes, hoes, chisels, grinding slabs, flat and concave querns, mullers, rubbers and pestles have been found at this site. The tools were made of indurated shale, sandstone and fossil wood (Goswami 1963: 45-47). The only semiprecious stone, found at Daojali Hading is Jadeite, which is not locally available and was 16 Its location is not in the Brahmaputra Valley but is situated on the Southern Bank of the Brahmaputra near the river Lanting which is a tributary of the Brahmaputra. 64

15 probably brought from Bunna (Lahiri 1992: 240). Jadeite has also been found at the sites of Lahowal, Naharkatia and Barkhamtigaon (Ray 1987: 293) in the eastern zone. The findings of a hoe from the site of Daojali Hading give us some kind of evidence for the cultivation of crops. At the same time presence of wild animal bones, indicates that the material culture was supplemented by hunting and gathering (Sant 1991: 83). There is evidence of small and slender, bones which appear to have been partially trimmed and pointed and may have been used as needles, arrow heads or borers. These were found at Daojali Hading and reveal some kind of a hunting community. There is evidence of burnt tortoise shell, which indicates the presence of fishing, which is one of the essential and available foods that could be tapped by the inhabitants of these settlements from the main river and its tributaries. Another settlement within this zone is at Biswanath in Sonitpur district, which is located on the middle course of the river where celts, grooved hammers, simple hammer stones and grinding hammer stones were found (Ray 1987:293). The raw material used for the manufacture of these tools is slate, gneiss, phosphorite and volcanic ash. The land grants emerged at a much later date in the central part of the, around the 9 th century AD as compared to the grants made as early as the 5 th and the 8 th century AD, in the western part. These inscriptions were written primarily when land was granted to the donees except on three occasions, such as settling disputes in the Tezpur rock inscription of Hmjaravarma and the donation of the image of the Sun-God from Kaki. The purpose of the Hayunthal plate of Hmjaravanria is not quite clear. The epigraphs make references to a variety of physical features such as mountains, rivers, lakes and ponds. The nature of the vegetation described in the landscape is not as dense as compared to the western part. The size of the epigraphs in this zone vary from short, medium and long inscriptions in contrast to the western and eastern zone where longer epigraphs were authored. In contrast to the eastern and western the temple remains in the central part of the display certain distinct traits such as the usage of a diverse range of raw materials (table 2.4) apart from stone and brick, sandstone, gneiss and quartzite have been used. 65

16 '1 Chapter 2: Environmental Diversity and Settlements Table 2.3: Differences in settlements, physical features and plant resources in the three zones from the 5th - 13th c en t UP' No Name of Name of the Land grant Chronology Plants found Physical Structure References to. the grant zone / other features of the grant Settlements and categories Reference 1 Umacala Western Grant of a 5 th cent AD nil nil short nil rock Brahmaputra cave inscription vahey of Surendravarman 2 Dub! plate Western Renewal of 7 m cent AD nil Kraunca Long (5 Pura of Brahmaputra an older mountain plates) and 1981: 12 Bhaskara- vahey charter seal line 43) varma 1981:16 line 97) 3 Nidnanpur Sylhet; Revival of a 7 th cent AD jataliw:ksa sz1skakau Long (6 Candrapurivi~ay Copper adjacent to charter by 1981 :32 sil~a plates) a plate of Western Bhuti-varma line 131) 1981 :24 hne Bhaskara- Brahmaputra 1981:31 49), varma vahey line 129), Mayurfulmalagr Gangil}ik aharasetra. a 1981 :24 (streams) line 51 ), 1981:31 line 130) 4 Copper-beH I Western Donation of 8 th cent AD nil nil short nil inscription, Brahmaputra a copper- 66

17 of bell Srikumara 1981 :35) 5 Hawraghat, Western Land grant 9 th cent AD tripatraka vr~a, Lauhitya medium (3 H a4apes'vara copper-plate Brahmaputra 1981 :70 nver, plates) pura of line 52) mount 1981:69 line Balavarnla Jambuvrksa or Kailiis'a 32), Varase- (Sanna black-b~rry tree pattana vi~aya 1981:67) 1981 : : :69 line 54), vetasa line 3) line 36), 1981 :70 line 53) pl1taka bhumi, I I Vl:ksa (Sanna Bappadeva-, tam b U7a 1981: :67 line 69) line 6-7), Pragjyotisakrsnagaru '.. pura (Sanna (Sanna 1981: :67 line 8) lige 54) 6 Sualkuci Western Land grant 1036 AD Sarka ram Ula Diyamba medium (3 Dalqinaplate of Brahmaputra 1981:90 rajola plates) (2 patinauki bhumr RatnapaJa, line 59), plates are 1981:90 I, vetasavrksa 1981 :90 lost) line 59), Sadava 1981 :89) (Sanna 1981:90 line 64) bhuml (Sanna, line 60), hijjala 1981:90 line vrksa,. 63), kulasontha 1981 :90 line 63- (Sanna 1981:90 64), line 63) satmalivrks.a j 1981:90 67

18 line 61), coraka vrlqa 1981 :90 line 62), varuna vrksa 1981 :90 line 63) Amravrksa 1981 :90 line 60) Bhadravrksa 1981:90 line 60) 7 Gauhati Western Land grant 1058 AD S5khotaka vrks.a Ko~!"am medium (3 Kost akast grant of Brahmaputra 1981 :98 akhiyzina plates) pataka (Sanna IndrapaIa line 52) bll 19in:98 line (pond) 41), Bhavis~ 1981:92) bhumt (Sanna 1981 : :98 line 5), line 53), Makutimakhiyiin Dirgum abhiiml (Sanna ma nadf 1981:97 line 45), 1981:98 Kuntavitalakkha line 48) bhoga bhiimt, 1981 :98 line 41), Durjjaya pura 1981:96 line 32), Hapyoma vis~ya 68

19 1981:96 line 35) 8 Guakuci Western Land grant 1071 AD Kanthaphala Haharavl medium (3 Pandari bhumr grant of Brahmaputra (Sanna jola plates) Indrap7fla, 1981: 101 line 1981: 101 line (Sanna 50), amra 1981:101 51), Makutikumyarapandiirl 1981: 100) (Sanna lige 50), 1981: 10 1 line Siikhotak bhuml~ 58), jingini ajola 1981:101 line vrksa (Sanna 49), Vainama 1981 : 101 line 1981: 101 gram a, Mandi 55), line 55), vi~afa (Sanna Srotas7}o 1981:100 line la 34) RZijaputrapataka 1981:100. line 58) 1981:101 line 49) 9 Puspabhadr :, Western Land grant cent Suvarnadaruvrksa jola plates) Digdola Camyala medium (3 Guhesvara a grant of I Brahmaputra Dharmapala i 1981:139 line Vrddhagrama(S 53-54), Paralf 1981:138 arma 1981: :133) vrks'a line 48), line 46), 1981:139 line Jaugalla Dijjaratma7!tbhil 52), Madhura- nadr ml (Sanna asvattha vrksa 1981:138 line 1981: ), Alipana 1981:139 line line 49), bhfinil (Sanna 56) Nekkiide 1981:138 line L-~ JL' ~ ~ ~ ~u_l_i~j~ io_lr_ L ~4_7~7}~, ~ 69

20 .~ Chapter 2: Environmental Diversity and Settlements I I I I (Sanna Purajivi~aya 1981:138 (Sanna line 50), 1981: 138 line SiJ}ga~r 46) joll (Sanna 1981:138 line 50), I I Vekkasus kanadl 1981:138 line 50), Dijjamak kajofa 1981:139 line 53) 10 Kanawarsl Western Coming of 1206 AD nil nil short nil rock I Brahmaputra the Turks inscription I (Sanna 1981: 141) 11 Stone Western Establish- 12 U1-13U1 nil nil short nil inscription Brahmaputra ment of century AD ofsamudra- stone satra, pilla (Sanna 1981:143) 12 Hayunthal Mikir hills; Not clear Mid-9 U1 nil Goc.. ara medium (2 nil plate of adjacent to the cent AD (hilly plates) 70

21 Hatjara- central regions) vanna Brahmaputra (Sanna 1981:37) 13 Tezpur ro~ -:k Central Settling of 830 AD nil Salildiar short HaruppeSvarapu inscription Brahmaputra dispute a ra of Hatjar a- between 1981:42, 1981 :42, line 1), vann-a fishing and line 8) pravarabhumt (Sanna navy boats (Sanna 1981:42, 1981:42) line 8), 14 Tezpur Central Land grant 9Ul cent AD nil Lauhitya medium nil plates I )f Brahmaputra (Sanna Vanamala- 1981:44 varmadeva line 1 ), Trisrotan 1981:44) ad! (Sanna 1981 :49 r line 33), 15 Parvatiya Central Land grant 9Ul cent AD Salmalz Candikii medium (3 Svalpama,!goka plate ()f Brahmaputra 1981:54 line pu~kari,!i plates) mal}dala (Sanna Vanamala-. 50), venu-vitipa, (Sanna 1981 :54 line 48) vannadeva 1981: :54 (Sanna line 49) vat a line 49), 1981:51) (Sanna 1981 :54 Lauhitya line 49) 1981:51 71

22 line 3) Dhavilpu skarinz. 1981:54 line 51) 16 Inscription Central Donation of 9 th cent AD nil nil Short nil on the Surya Brahmaputra an image of Image from Sun-God Kiki (Sanna 1981:57J 17 Nowgaon Central Land grant 9 th cent AD Jambusrjalavrks( Diddesav medium (3 Hen~iva Bh/jml - plate of Brahmaputra a or wood-apple apt plates) 1981:76 Balavanna tree (Sanna lin~ 33), Dijjina (Sanna 1981:77 line 1981 :77 vi~aya (Sanna 1981:72) 47), line 49) 1981:76 line s~lmalrvrksb 33), (Sanna 1981:77 Pragjyoti~apura line 48), (Sanna 1981 :72 amravrksa line 6) (Sann~ i981:77 line 48), suvarnadaru,. (Sanna 1981:77 line 48), jatz))/:!qa 1981:77 line 48), vatavrksa 1981: 77 72

23 ~ Chapter 2: Environmental Diver~ity and Settlements line 49) 18 Ulubari Central Land grant Last quarter Vetasavrksa Dimdauj medium (3 Manjaivifaya plate of Brahmaputra of the 9 th (Shann~. ola plates) (Shanna Balavanna cent AD 1978:315 line (Shanna 1978:314 line (Shanna 52) 1978:315 37) -., :314) Patalivrksa line 52), Dikkura bhumi (Shanna Saivajola (Shanna 1978:315 line (Shanna 1978:314 line 53) 1978:315 37) Saptapar~av:ks,a line 52) (Sharma 1978:315 line 54), Jarivrksa (Sharina 1978:315 line 54), madarvrks,a (Sharma 1978:315 line 55) 19 Assam Central Land grant 1185 AD nil nil long (5 Hapyacaman.d plates of Brahmaputra plates) ala (Shanna Vallabhadev 1978:295 line a (Shanna 36) 1978:293). KTrtipura (Shanna 1978:295 line 37) Cadi (Shanna 73

24 , 1978:295 line 43) Devunikoncl (Shanna 1978:295 line 43) Sajjapiga (Shanna 1978:295 line 43) Vangaka, (Shanna 1978:295 line 43) Samsrahtkonc Tka, (Shanna 1978:295 line 44) Dosfpataka, (Shanna 1978:295 line 44) SonEiplitaka(S hanna 1978:295 line 44) 20 Bargaon Central Land grant 1035 AD Badrvrksa.. Udayaca medium (3 Trayodasagram grant of Brahmaputra fa plates) avi~aya (Sanna Ratnapala i 1981:86 line mountain 1981:85 line 74

25 67), salmalz~ 52), 1981 :79) 1981:85 Durjjayapura 1981 :87 line line 50), (Sanna 1981:84 70)1 Kailasag line 40), kasimbala In Pragjyoti~pura (Sanna (Sanna 1981: :87 line 1981:83 line 9) 71), hijjala line 33), Lauhitya, 1981 :87 line Dver I 69), I vetasavrksa 1981:79,. line 5) I 1981:87 line 72) 21 Inscription Eastern Donation of 9 tn cent AD nil nil short nil of Harihara Brahmaputra an image of Image from Harihara Deopani (No.1) 1981 :62) 22 Inscription Eastern Donation of 9 tn cent AD nil nil short nil on Harihara Brahmaputra an image of tmage from Hari-hara, Deopani (No.2) 1981:64) 23 NagaIjarl- Eastern Land grant Early part of nil nil short Dibrnmukkhada 75

26 Khanikar- Brahmaputra the 5 tn cent AD (Sharma -. gaon 1978:304 line 3) fragmentary stone inscription (Sharma 1978:304) 24 Nalanda Nalanda 7tn cent AD Genealogy Nil nil short nil seal of (outside the Bhaskara- zones) varman 1981:6) 25 Subhankara- Area not 12tn cent Land grant Asvattha nil medium (3 Priigjyoti~apura Pa~aka grant : known AD plates) of 1981: :125 line 4) Dharmapala line 57), KanjiyabhTtvr I _. iakhota and Subhankarapa(a 1981:125) akhota tree ka bhumi. 1981:128 line 1981: ), Olindaline 50), bhumi'- Locana 1981:128 line, 31 ). Dijjina 1981:131 vi~aya line 55), 1981:128 line 31 Oriamma ), Oiangitantra bhuml (Sanna 1981: : 131 line line 53), 62) 76

27 , Siilmalz- or Silk-cotton tree 1981:131 line 61),, Hijjala 1981: 131 line 57), Kantavakka da tree or wild jackfruit 1981:131 line 56), Lahuca 1981:131 line 58), Jharipakail 1981:131 line 59), K!. aslm balii 1981:131 line 61), Valla.., or Banyan tree 77

28 \ Chapter 2: Environmental Diversity and Settlements 1981:131 line 62), Bahuala 1981:131 line 62J 26 Kamauli Outside the 1142 AD Land-grant nil nil 3 plates (on Hamsakoncl plate zones both sides (Sharma (Shanna obverse and 1978:289 line 1978:275) reverse) 47), Santibada gri1'ma (Sharma 1978:280 line 53), Mandara gram a (Sharma 1978:280 line 53) Pragjyotisabhuk ti (Shanna 1978:280 line 48) Kamriipama,!c!al a (Sharma, 1978:280 line 27 Coratbari plate 48) Central lith cent Land-grant Sa 1m a livrks nil (medium) 3 Siintidiisa Brahmaputra AD a (Shainia plates pa~aka (Sharma (Shanna 1978: :0.23 line 1978:0.21) line 71), 54) 78

29 T. Chapter 2: Environmental Diversity and Settlements HijjalaVl.. ~a Bha.t!ayaparaka (Sharma 1978: :0.23 line line 72) 54) H avrngavis.aya (Sharma 1978:0.23 line 53) 28 Gachtal Central 1080 AD Land-grant nil Lauhitya (medium) 2 Pragjyoti~apura plate Brahmaputra (Sharma plates (Sharma (Sharma 1978: :111 line 1978: lo3) line 6) 14), Khar7konakonci bhumt(sharma 1978:117 line 36), Barastrajambub avi~aya (Sharma 1978: 117 line 36) 29 Khonamukh Central 1th century Land-grant vatavrksa Balabha (medium) 3 Arjjapa( akabhu plate Brahmaputra AD (Sarni.a' drapu~ka plates and mt (Sharma 1981: 122 rini one seal 1981:122 line 1981: 119), line 52), (SalIDa 43), asvathavrks 1981:122 Digalaf!4ibhlLmT a (Sharni.a line 53), kiimandala 1981:122 Bhavade line 49) vapu!fkar 1981: 123 line ini 57) 79

30 (Sanna Purujivi~aya 1981: : line 53) 120 line 29) Merupataka (Sanna 1981: 12f line 45), Sankhupa!' 1ka (Sa'rma 1981:122 line 45), Kha'!tapa!aka 1981:122 line 48), Cokkiipataka 1981 :122 line 51 ) Paicimapat' aka (Sanna.' 1981:123 line 57). Uttarapa.taka (Sanna, 1981:122 line 56), Pancapa.taka 1981:122 line 50) 80

31 30 Inscription on the Surya image from ICaki 1981:57) Central Brahmaputra 9 th AD century votive nil nil Short) 1 nil sentence 81

32 The temples within this zone such as those at Devasthan, Bamuni Pahar and Gosainjuri also appear in a kind of pattern where they occur in groups of nine temples within a complex probably reflecting the navagraha or nine planets as viewed by scholars (Choudhary 1985: 179). The other distinctions appear in the intricate temple layout such as the torm!a, dvaras~kha and iirapatti, mandapa or Natmandir, and a garbhag~ha. The garbhag,:has are largely on a square plan and at a lower level which is similar to the western zone. Settlements in the Eastern Brahmaputra Valley The Neolithic settlements in the Eastern Brahmaputra include the sites of Lahowal, Naharkhatiya and Barkhamtigaon. The tools collected from the eastern zone include tanged or shouldered, flat and small celts, quadrangular axes, adzes and chisels. The raw material that has been used is shale, sandstone and jadeite. These tools were manufactured by the saw-edged techniques, which is distinct from the other two zones. There is an absence of pottery finds from the eastern zone as as compared to the other two zones. As mentioned earlier the epigraphic references are scant pertaining to this zone. There are just two short epigraphs which record the donation of the image of Harihara. However, the earliest land grant (Nagatjan-Khanikargaon) that was made dated to the early part of the 5 th century belongs to this zone. A single instance of Pre-Ahom architecture comes from the structure at Deoparvat dating roughly to the 9 th or loth century AD. There are other structures in the region that pertain to the post 13 th century period. This structure that is located on top of a hill is made of stone, with rich ornamental carvings. The diverse settlements (table 1.3) as reflected in the data reveal that settlements emerged within distinct environmental zones in the region. As these settlements emerged in a particular ecological zone they were able to draw upon a variety of resources such as forest products, wild plants, grasses, etc., accessible to the settlements (Sant 1991 :83) and the communities inhabiting these zones would have engaged in a variety of occupations. 82

33 2.2: Neolithic tools in eastern Brahmaputra by J.H. reglon IS archaeological surveys and excavations conducted, scholars have concluded that the dates of the Neolithic in North-east India can be placed within a time-range of 2000-, 1500 Be 1985: 16). However, the land-grants emerge from the fifth century AD onwards creating a gap in the chronology of the region. There is no clear date for the end of the Neolithic phase in the region due to the fragmentary nature of the available archaeological data. There may not have been an evolutionary pattern of development of settlements from the prehistoric to the historical period as a mosaic of diverse settlements coexisted within the three environmental zones. There may have been a continuity of Neolithic settlements into later times (Lahiri 1991: 157). 83

34 T a hi e 2.4 D iversity 0 f arc h Itectural remains structure and I Zone Date location garbhagrha dvara Material used Other features reference Morno! Western Unknow Hill-top, square narrow bricks temple complex structure Brahmap n south bank garbhagr:ha, (Choudhary utra of the without a 1985: 132) Brahmaputr deity a YogTgopha Western Unknow Hill-top, brttakhan rocks presence of (Choudhary Brahmap n north bank da or caverns in huge 1985: 133) utra of the arched boulders Brahmaputr dvara a Paglatek Western Unknow south bank Sivalinga In bricks and structure Brahmap n of the the stone - (Choudhary utra (carving Brahmaputr garbhag;ha 1985: 133) assigned a to the 7 th cent) Phulbari Western Pre- Foot-hill, brick structure Brahmap Ahom south bank (Choudhary utra period of the :134) Brahmaputr a Sri Surya western 9 th cent south bank rocks rock-cut caverns Pahar Brahmap AD of the ' (Choudhary utra Brahmaputr :134) a Mahadev western 9 th cent dvlira bricks 84

35 pabar "I Brahmap AD - sakhas (Choudhary, utra 1985: 134) Madan- Western 11 Ib - Hill, North stone tank and Kamdeva Brahmap 12th bank of fortification (Choudhary utra cent Brahmaputr 1985:179), AD a Aivaklanta(C Western Pre- south bank stone houdhary Brahmap Ahom of 1985: 143) utra period Brahmaputr a Deulgovinda Western 81b or 91b Hill, south stone rocks blown-off (Choudhary Brahmap cent AD bank of for sculptures 1985:143) utra Brahmaputr a Manikarnes'va Western Pre- Hill, south dvaras'akhas stone ra (Choudhary I, Brahmap Ahom bank of 1985: 143) utra period Brahmaputr a SiddheS-vari Western 101b cent south bank stone 2 Images of (Choudhary Brahmap AD of Surya 1985: 144) utra Brahmaputr a PingalesVara Western 91b or south bank stone stone images (Choudhary Brahmap loth cent of 1985: 144) utra AD Bra.hmaputr a Kamakhya Western 71b_81b Hill, south Si.lali brick stone-sculptures (Choudhary Brahmap cent AD bank of 85

36 1985:145) utra Brahmaputr a Akasiganga Central 10 th cent south bank: dvarasira gneiss stone, perforated (Choudhary Brahmap AD of pattis bricks windows, 1985:173) utra Brahmaputr figures of bulls a and [higas, carvmgs of Siva I Gachtal ' Central 10 th cent south bank: 4 dvaras granite 2 temples, (Choudhary Brahmap AD of sanctum, ante 1985:174) utra Brahmaputr chamber, : a mandapa Dab Parvatiya I -do- 6 th cent dvara Temple (Choudhary complex 1985:174) Rajbafi Central unknow south bank gneiss stone 9 mounds, / (Choudhary Brahmap n of Sivalingas 1985:174) utra Brahmaputr a Na-Nath-than Central unknow south bank square stone and brick 9 brick temples, (Choudhary Brahmap I n of garbhagrha Sivalingas 1985:17) utra Brahmaputr. a Mal1adeosal Central unknow Elevated, Dvara- evidence of (Choudhary Brahmap n south bank sakha more than one 1985:175) utra of, temple, carving Brahmaputr of Gajalaksmi a Mathar bari Central 10 th cent south bank: stone Visvu temple, 86

37 (Choudhary Brahmap AD of ornamental 1985:175) utra Brahmaputr decoration a Kawaiman Central 11th_12th south bank Gneiss stone 9 temples, (Choudhary Brahmap cent AD of figures of 1985:175) utra Brahmaputr Dasava tiira of a Visnu Mikirati Central 10 th cent south bank Laghusta brick 2 temples and a (Choudhary Brahmap AD of l1}bha m few mounds 1985: 149) utra Brahmaputr its 4 a comers, Lower in level than the mandapas Ba9ganga Central 6 th cent Highly Garbhagrha sandstone, Barganga rock- ( Cfioudhary Brahmap AD elevated, built of hard bricks inscription 1985:153) utra south bank stand-stone of I Brahmaputr a Devasthan Central unknow south bank stone 9, mounds, (Choudhary Brahmap n of Sivaliiigas, 1985: 176) utra Brahmaputr Images of i a Ganesa Budhagosaint Central unknow south bank Doorframe sandstone han Brahmap n of containing the (Choudhary I utra Brahmaputr figures of 1985: 176) : a, (on the dasavatciras.1 87

38 bank of the Dikharu river) Deopani Central cent south bank brick tmages of Hari- (Choudhary Brahmap AD of Hara and Visnu 1985: 178) utra Brahmaputr with 3 lines' 'of I a inscriptions have been found Deoparvat Eastern 9 ill or Hill, south Dvara-s'akhas garb h agr stone huge, elaborate (Choudhary Brahmap 10 th cent bank of ha carvings 1985: 154) utra AD Brahmaputr a Source: Choudhary, R.D., Archaeology of the Brahmaputra of Assam (Pre-Ahom Penod); Agam Kala Prakashan, DelhI.; Choudhary, N.D., Historical Archaeology of Central Assam (Pre-Ahom Period), B. R. Publication Corporation, Delhi. 88

39 To summanse the above discussion it can be concluded that the emergence of settlements date back to the prehistoric times in the region. Based on studies by archaeologists and anthropologists on the tool types and their uses as well as the environmental conditions, foraging and shifting cultivation appear as dominant subsistence modes along with belts of settled cultivation in the plains. A detailed discussion of an agricultural system comprising foraging and shifting agriculture, which emerged in the three zones, will be taken up in chapter 3. As seen in section II settlements were located in diverse environmental zones since prehistoric times and harvested a variety of resources available in the region and assigned multiple uses for these plants, which will be discussed in detail in the next section. III SETTLEMENT PATTERN The environment has a bearing on the nature of settlements as there are frequent references to the names of settlements in the context of the land-grants. The administration of the settlements required a delineation of the districts (vi~aya or bhukti), towns, cities (pura, puram or nagara), village or (grama) and agricultural plots (k:etra, pathaka or bhumi). Other administrative units that are referred to are the mandala and the skandhavara. Distinctions among the various categories of settlements can be observed in the epigraphs and an increasing complexity in the nature of settlements can be seen from the post 9th century period onwards. The settlement pattern is influenced by a variety of factors such as climatic conditions along with ecological and environmental variations. In arid environments a type of village pattern emerges which is nucleated with a concentration of houses surrounded by fields, and grazing grounds for livestock at a distance. In wetter areas such as eastern a.l1d southern India the preferred pattern is of linear homesteads (Thapflf 2002:50), Physical circumstances affect settlements as villages can develop on sites that have access to water, which could be in the form of a stream, a spring, a pond or a well (Roberts 1996:32). A diagrammatic representation made by Gadgil shows a mosaic of refugium land, common lands for forest and grazing purpose, habitation areas and the agricultural fields formed in pre-colonial India. The fields were located near the rivers 89

40 whereas the homestead was in drier lands and the pasture land was in close proximity (Lahiri 1991 :95). A study of the location of settlements reveals that they were located near rivers or streams (map 4). On the basis of the location of land-grants near the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries it is observed that these settlements were in clusters and not in a linear homestead pattern. The landscape comprised of the viistukedarasthalagoprad2ira (Nowgaon grant; Sarma 1981: 76, line 36) (Hawraghat grant; Sarma 1981: 85 line 56) (Gauhati grant; Sarma 1981 :97 line 39). The term vastu refers to the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house. The term kedara refers to a field or meadow; especially one under water, the term sthala refers to a heap of artificially raised earth, mound, soil, ground, place, spot, dry land, and go-pracara refers to pasturage for cattle. Thus the picture of the landscape that can be drawn for the region is one that is similar to Gadgil's model for pre-colonial India comprising of diverse components such as habitational area, grazing land for animals, marshy area and fields that were cultivated which formed the uniqueness of the region. Another unique feature that can be observed in the settlements is the presence of fruit trees. The inscriptions refer to several fruit trees in the region such as amravrksa (Guakuci grant of IndrapaIa; Sarma 1981: 101 line 58), jambuvrksa.. (Hawraghat copperplate of Balavamla; Sarma 1981 :70 line 54), kanthaphalvrksa (Guakuci grant of Indrapala; Sarma 1981: 101 line 50) and sweet root (Sualkuci plate of Ratnapala; Sarma 1981 :90 line 59). These trees are found growing on the boundaries of the land granted to the donees. In the case of the Brahmaputra, it can be observed that the region is different on the basis of environmental diversity and also in terms of the diversity of resources. In chapter 3 the variety and significance of water bodies will be discussed. The references to water bodies differed in the settlements in the region. Ponds have played a significant role in eastern India as compared to tank irrigation in southern India and canals m northern India as a form of irrigation