URBANISING OUR OCEANS

Transcription

1 URBANISING OUR OCEANS Implications of economic development on the establishment and spread of marine non-native species Dr Elizabeth Cook Invasive Species Ireland Forum

2 Urbanisation (Physical Geography Dictionary) = Expansion of cities into rural regions because of population growth Urbanisation of the oceans = Expansion of human influence into coastal and offshore areas because of increased demand for global products and food production, new sources of energy and increased tourism/ recreational activity

3 URBANISATION OF OUR OCEANS DIVERSITY Immobile and mobile structures (e.g., coastal defences, artificial reefs, vessels, fish cages) CD AR P SW AB MB CS LC FP FC DB Examples of the diversity of artificial structures in the marine environment: coastal defences (CD), artificial reefs (AR), pipes (P), shipwrecks (SW), anchored buoys (AB), mooring blocks (MB), commercial ships (CS), leisure crafts (LC), floating pontoons (FP), fish cages (FC), drifting buoys (DB). Mineur et al Ann Rev Ocean Mar Biol 50:

4 SCALE Individual structures to developments spanning many kilometres of coastline Geoje, South Korea E. Cook (SAMS) J. Stehlikova (SAMS) Dubai In 40 years, development of 40 million m 2 land, including 3 shore side and 5 floating docks

5 Photo Credit: R. Haywood ARMOURING OUR COASTLINE Examples: US (e.g. Maryland and Virginia) over 50% of the coastline has been replaced by artificial structures Adriatic, Japan and Netherlands Majority of originally sedimentary coastline now reinforced by hard sea defences Europe Estimated 22,000 km 2 coastal zone now hardened by artificial structures Sydney Harbour: Approx. 50% of the foreshore is now composed of hard structures (Bulleri et al. 2005)

6 OCEAN SPRAWL? Armouring our coastline, but what about offshore? In Europe, over 7,500 wind turbines online, under construction or consented (see review in Miller et al. in press. Front. Ecol Env.)

7 URBAN SPRAWL

8 URBAN OCEAN SPRAWL

9 Japanese Skeleton Shrimp (Caprella mutica) E. Cook (SAMS) BUT WHAT DOES OCEAN SPRAWL HAVE TO DO WITH INVASIVE NON-NATIVE (INNS) SPECIES?

10 NON-NATIVE SPECIES - OVERVIEW Non-native species introduced by anthropogenic activity outside their native range Invasive non-native (INNS) non-native species that threaten biodiversity or cause economic damage Global estimate is 0.9 trillion annually 1 ; in the UK, estimated to cost to economy is 1.7 billion per annum, including 7.1 million per annum to aquaculture industry alone 2. Whereas, in Ireland and N. Ireland combined, estimated to cost 176.6K per annum to aquaculture industry 3. Number of species have already been linked with significant fish kills worldwide, high clearance costs from aquaculture sites and marinas (e.g., Karenia mikimotoi, Styela clava, Crepidula fornicata, Didemnum vexillum) and a significant reduction in native biodiversity (e.g., Caulerpa taxifolia) In 2011, Wildlife and Natural Environment (WANE) (Scotland) Act (2011) was passed by Scottish Government and includes a requirement to notify the existence of specific INNS in Scotland (Part 2; sections 14 to 17). C. Beveridge (SAMS) E. Cook (SAMS) 1 Pimentel et al. Agri. Ecosyst. Env 84; 2 Williams et al CABI; 3 Kelly et al NIEA & NPWS

11 ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES AND THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INVASION Diversity of structures provides a wide range of habitats suitable for many different species, including INNS Artificial structures in recipient environment pre-selected for attachment by INNS Certain structures shown to favour colonisation by INNS, particularly man-made materials (e.g., plastic, metal and concrete) Fouling on pontoon floats in Peterhead marina, NE Scotland including the non-native macroalga Codium fragile subsp. fragile and bryozoan Tricellaria inopinata E. Cook (SAMS)

12 ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES - IMMOBILE Structures at least partly submerged and permanently secured to the seabed 1 Including; coastal defences, artificial reefs, submerged pipes, shipwrecks, anchored buoys, fixed pontoons and mooring blocks C. Beveridge (SAMS) Clydeport Jetty, Firth of Clyde 1 See review Mineur et al Ann Rev Ocean Mar Biol 50:

13 RAPID MARINA SURVEYS Floating Pontoons E. Cook (SAMS) 10 Largest Scottish Marinas ( berths) Annual survey hrs for each marina 7 target species 4 NNS found in total (1-3 per marina) fragile E. Cook (SAMS) E. Cook (SAMS) Location of marinas sampled and distribution of non-native species. Ashton et al. (2006) Aquat. Inv. 1 (4): E. Cook (SAMS)

14 RAPID SURVEY (2012) Floating pontoons in marinas/ harbours in Northern Scotland 10 NNS in total from 27 sites, including first records of 4 NNS in this region Bugula simplex first record in Scotland Stromness, Kirkwall (Orkney) and Cromarty marina had the most NNS (6-7 species per marina) Greater number of NNS in harbours with pontoons and floating structures C. Nall (in prep.) (UHI SAMS/ERI)

15 RAPID SURVEY (2012) Non-native species found on floating pontoons in marinas/ harbours in Northern Scotland Austrominius modestus (5) Botrylloides violaceus (7) Codium fragile subsp. fragile (11) Neosiphonia harveyi (2) Caprella mutica (12) Tricellaria inopinata (3) Schizoporella japonica (8) Heterosiphonia japonica (9) Corella eumyota (6) Bugula simplex (1)* C. Nall (in prep.). UHI PhD Student SAMS/ ERI, Thurso

16 OFFSHORE IMMOBILE ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES 40 offshore navigation buoys studies in conjunction with Northern Lighthouse Board (NLB) 4 geographic areas in Scotland subjected to a range of tidal flows B A B A C C D D A. Macleod (2013). PhD Thesis. Aberdeen University.

17 Algaebase A. Macleod (SAMS) NNS IDENTIFIED ON NAVIGATION BUOYS Caprella mutica K. Hiscock Austominius modestus C. Beveridge (SAMS) Corella eumyota 5 NNS identified in total Offshore structures in variety of flow environments able to support established communities of NNS Heterosiphonia japonica Macleod et al. (in prep.) Biofouling Codium fragile subsp. fragile E. Cook, SAMS

18 E. Cook (SAMS) E. Cook (SAMS) E. Cook (SAMS) F. Kerckhof (MUMM) E. Cook (SAMS) T. Nickell (SAMS) Caprella mutica European expansion of the Japanese Skeleton Shrimp, Caprella mutica. Cook et al Aqua Inv 2(4):

19 Number of Species ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES - MOBILE Defined as structures that can float or be moved, including those that can move species over considerable distances such as between ocean basins. Includes; commercial ships, leisure craft, fish cages, drifting buoys. Pathways involved in the transmission of alien species into British brackish and marine environments. Likely arrival mode involving a single known pathway (dark bar), possible transmission pathway involving more than one mode of entry (light bar) and unknown (striped) Minchin et al. (2013) Aquat Inv 8 (1): 3-19

20 Number of boats NNS ON RECREATIONAL VESSELS Number of animal NNS E. Cook (SAMS) Dense biofouling on recreational boat hull observed on Scottish marina survey, 2008 Average of 4 NNS per yacht (n=63); 12 NNS found on yachts sampled on south coast of England (Bishop et al. MBA) NNS found on hulls include; Styela clava, Didemnum vexillum, Tricellaria inopinata and Caprella mutica Cook et al. (2011). Marine Aliens Final Report. SAMS report 34.

21 NNS ON COMMERCIAL VESSELS Niche areas, particularly propeller shafts, base of the keel and sea chests are high risk sites for colonisation by NNS NNS including; decapods, bivalves, bryozoans, mussels, barnacles and caprellids have all been found in these niche areas 1 T. McCollin (Marine Scotland Science) Dry Dock Sampling (Marine Scotland Science, 2009) Nine vessels sampled in Aberdeen; two non-native species found on vessel hulls - Austroelminius modestus (Darwin s barnacle) and Caprella mutica (Japanese skeleton shrimp). Unable to examine sea chests. 1 Coutts et al (2003) Mar Poll Bull 46:

22 ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES Are they increasing the risk of dispersal of INNS? Potential to act as vectors (mobile) and/or stepping stones (immobile) for the dispersal of INNS Good evidence for mobile structures Increasingly immobile structures are being placed in novel environments, where hard substratum previously absent Stepping stone effect extremely hard to detect in marine environment From Miller et al. (in press). Front. Ecol. Env.

23 E.g., Northern Gulf of Mexico Over 3,000 oil/ gas platforms providing hard substratum where only sandy muds with low habitat diversity existed prior to the 1940s Connectivity of native and non-native coral populations between oil/gas platforms detected using genetic variation 1,2 Map of the oil and gas platforms in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Sammarco et al. (2012) PLOS One: doi: /journal.pone g002 1 Page et al (1999). MEPS 325: ; 2 Sammarco et al. (2012) PLOS One 7(4): e30144

24 What implications will this have on the dispersal of marine INNS? Northern Ireland offshore renewable energy strategic action plan (March 2012) (www. offshorewind.biz)

25 CROSS-CHANNEL DISPERSAL? Tom Adams & Dmitry Aleynik (SAMS) Use of a coupled biophysical model currently in progress FVCOM (Finite Volume Coastal Ocean Model) 1 Greater predictive capability near shore than previously used models due to variable mesh size 940 sites, approx. 1 km apart Currently, assumption is no natural migration from N. Ireland to Scotland But what if novel habitat introduced? (T. Adams, unpubl.) 1 Chen et al. (2006) Oceanography 19(1): 78-89

26 CROSS-CHANNEL DISPERSAL? Novel habitat allows migration to Scotland Darker => higher probability Effects most obvious for medium duration dispersers (c 4-8 days) E.g., Crassostrea gigas (Pacific Oyster) feral populations now found in Lough Foyle, NW N. Ireland and Didemnum vexillum in the Firth of Clyde, Strangford Lough both have pelagic larval dispersal and will colonise artificial structures (T. Adams, unpubl.)

27 E. Cook (SAMS) W. Mcknight (Thanet, Kent) D. Minchin (MOI Investigations) Crassostrea gigas (Pacific Oyster) Larval duration (~14-18 days) Didemnum vexillum (Carpet Sea Squirt) Larval duration (~hours - 2 days)

28 CROSS-CHANNEL DISPERSAL? Could the model be expanded and used to help predict more accurately the dispersal of NNS? If so, potential to target source populations for management/ control Or to predict which MPAs should be closely monitored as at a higher risk of invasion by NNS Dmitry Aleynik (SAMS)

29 CONCLUDING REMARKS Urbanisation of our oceans is happening at a rapid rate, particularly in the UK with the expansion of the marine renewable energy sector NNS have been shown to successfully establish on a wide variety of coastal and offshore structures Impact of Ocean Sprawl is yet to be fully understood Is the addition of thousands of immobile structures really going to make a significant difference, considering the amount of vessel traffic already taking place? Climate change is predicted to increase the abundance and frequency of invasion by NNS 1. How will this, combined with increasing numbers of coastal and offshore structures influence the dispersal of NNS? 1 Cook et al (in press) Non-natives. MCCIP Report Card.

30 THANK YOU Acknowledgements: C. Beveridge, A. Macleod, C. Nall, T. Adams, D. Aleynik, J. Stehlikova, M. Wilson, R. Shucksmith, G. Ashton, K. Boos, M. Jahnke Elizabeth Cook SAMS