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1 This article was downloaded by: [Dr Peng Han Lim] On: 29 July 2015, At: 22:16 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London, SW1P 1WG Click for updates The International Journal of the History of Sport Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: The History of the South East Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games, : Celebrating Sports and Imagining Nation Building in a Period of Wars, Shifting Boundaries and Economic Uncertainty Peng Han Lim a & Mohd Salleh Aman a a Sports Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Published online: 27 Jul To cite this article: Peng Han Lim & Mohd Salleh Aman (2015): The History of the South East Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games, : Celebrating Sports and Imagining Nation Building in a Period of Wars, Shifting Boundaries and Economic Uncertainty, The International Journal of the History of Sport, DOI: / To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content ) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &

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3 The International Journal of the History of Sport, The History of the South East Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games, : Celebrating Sports and Imagining Nation Building in a Period of Wars, Shifting Boundaries and Economic Uncertainty Peng Han Lim* and Mohd Salleh Aman Sports Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia After the Second World War the Southeast Asian countries of Burma (1948), Laos (1954), Cambodia (1955), South Vietnam (1955), Malaya (1957), and Singapore (1959) sought independence from the British, French and Japanese colonialists. The first post Second World War and post-colonial biannual multisport Southeast Asian Games was held in Bangkok in 1959 among these countries (and Thailand) although they were relatively poor developing countries. Referring to official reports of the eight bi-annual SEAP Games and other sources of information this research studies how the organization of the eight SEAP Games since 1959 contributed to the nation building process of each country and shaped the political landscape. This was carried out by creating a national identity through sports in each country as well as creating a sense of regional cooperation during periods of war, shifting boundaries and identities. This was done through rituals to legitimize newly ascended constitutional monarchies and heads of states, national flags and athletes national identity during competition. The SEAP Games also gradually opened avenues for women s participation similar to female athletes in the Olympic Games. It also provided opportunities for promising athletes to shine, improve and compete at higher levels at the Asian and Olympic Games. Keywords: Southeast Asian Peninsula Games; Sepak Takraw; javelin; swimming; water polo Introduction Southeast Asia comprises those states situated to the east of the Indian sub-continent, to the south of China and the north of Australia. The region is a mixture of mainland and inland zones into which waves of migration and cultural and religious flows have left variegated imprints. It is full of cultural and religious diversity, while political boundaries, the main legacy of colonialism, do not always fit the societies they encompass. 1 Mainland or the Indo-Chinese peninsula contains the countries of Burma (now Myanmar), Siam (now Thailand), Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Malaya, including the island of Singapore. 2 South East Asia s exposed position also attracted a fairly large minority of non-indigenous Asians. There were Chinese and Indian immigration into Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and Java. 3 British in the Malay Peninsula, Sarawak, North Borneo and Burma The British East India Company (EIC) occupied Penang in 1786, Malacca in 1895 and set up a trading post in Singapore in The British established indirect rule in the *Corresponding author. penghan12@gmail.com q 2015 Taylor & Francis

4 2 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Federated Malay States (FMS) in 1896, comprising of Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. 5 By 1914 the Straits Settlements, FMS, and the Unfederated Malay States of Perlis, Kelantan, Terengganu and Kedah, formed British Malaya. Burma was carved up by the British in three Anglo-Burmese wars ( , and 1885). 6 The third and final Anglo-Burman War of witnessed the deposition of the king and final snuffing out of Burma s independence. 7 The whole of Burma became part of the Indian administrative system. 8 Under the Government of Burma Act which came in force on 1 April 1937, Burma was separated from India and given full internal autonomy as a transitional form of administrative body between direct colonial rule and Dominion status. However the date of full independence had not been fixed. 9 French Presence in Indo-China The modern history of Indochina began with French colonization of Cochinchina in 1867 and Tonkin and Annam in The French Governor-General later coerced Norodom into signing the convention which made Cambodia a de facto colony of France. 11 In 1893 a French naval blockade of Bangkok convinced the Siamese to have a treaty with the French renouncing of all its rights to territory on the east bank of the Mekong an arbitrary demarcation line in view of the fact that most Laotions lived along the west bank setting up the demilitarization of a 15-mile zone along the west bank of the river. The territory which the French were to call Laos came within the administrative framework of the Indochinese Union, a federation which included the colony of Cochinchina and the protectorates of Cambodia, Annam and Tonkin. 12 The Japanese Invasion of Southeast Asia On 9 December 1941 the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. Within five months the Japanese military campaign swept over Southeast Asia, destroyed the Western colonial empires and took command over this immense territory. 13 In Siam the regime continued unchanged although entirely dominated by Japanese authorities. 14 Southeast Asia was a major regional division of the Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere, consisting of nations which, in varying degrees of subordination, were to be either direct dependencies of or client states under Japanese hegemony. 15 The Japanese surrendered unconditionally on 15 August 1945 after the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August killing at least 78,000 people. 16 Post Second World War and the Struggle for Independence Japan had granted the Burmese nominal independence in 1943, and although the Japanesesponsored Burma National Army welcomed the return of the British in 1945, after the assassination of its leader, General Aung San in 19 July 1947, his deputy U Nu went ahead to negotiate for eventual independence for Burma on 4 January Prime Minister U Nu shared power with two Socialist Party leaders, U Ba Swe and U Kyaw Nyein. 18 However, in March 1962 General Ne Win mounted a coup and set up a Revolutionary Council to run the country. 19 From September 1945 to 1 April 1946 Malaya was re-occupied by the British Military Administration to assist in the restoration of order and security, labour and administrative authority. 20 A Malaya Union consisting of nine states in the Malay Peninsula and the two British Settlements of Penang and Malacca was created. Singapore became a separate

5 The International Journal of the History of Sport 3 colony in view of its economic and other interests. 21 In August 1957 Britain withdrew from her protectorate over the Malay states and Malaya became an independent nation. Singapore obtained internal self-government under a separate agreement with Britain in A state election was held in 1959 and the People s Action Party won. 23 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew and his colleagues regarded themselves as the first truly selfgoverning leaders of Singapore. 24 The First Indochina War, Immediately following the Japanese surrender on August 1945, the Viet Minh (Vietnam Independence League) National Liberation Committee headed by Ho Chi Minh read a Declaration of Independence on 2 September and proclaimed the birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. 25 However, Cochin China s autonomy granted by the French existed in paper only considering the French continued to control government offices and only one third of the territory. 26 Fighting began in early 1947 and when the French were finally compelled to admit defeat in May 1954, Vietnam itself had become divided into two parts with a communist Viet Minh in the north and the French-sponsored associated state of Vietnam in the south. In 1955 South Vietnam was declared an independent republic, but North Vietnam remained a separate communist state. 27 The Geneva conference ended the first Indochina War ( ) and divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The partition was to be temporary, for two years, at the end of which elections were to be held to unify the country. The United States refused to sign the declaration of the Geneva conference and proceeded to support the Government of South Vietnam, of which Ngo Dinh Diem had been appoint Premier on 14 June In 1946 the French had no intention of giving Laos genuine independence. In July 1949, a General Convention signed between France and Laos went in some way towards granting Laos greater independence. However, they were under military pressure from Vietminh agents and the Pathet Lao in early 1953 in their nationalist struggle. On 22 October 1953 a Treaty of Friendship and Association was sign between the Royal Lao government and the French granting independence and reaffirming Lao membership of the French Union. 29 French administrators returned to Cambodia in late 1945, but the protectorate was not re-established. Cambodia was to govern itself but the French had the power of veto over legislative and regulatory texts and acts, allowing itself to rule Cambodia more or less as it had before the war. 30 In October 1953 the French granted King Sihanouk authority over Cambodia s armed forces, judiciary and foreign affairs. However, their economic hold on the kingdom remained intact. 31 Ninety per cent of Cambodia s inhabitants are ethnic Khmer. 32 Second Indochina War, A Second Indochina War continued to rage on as a layered conflict. One layer consisted of the purely local revolutionary and nationalist struggles of the Lao, Cambodian and Vietnamese peoples. A second was the interstate war consisting of American assault on the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and the DRV s support of revolutions in Laos and Cambodia. The contest between the DRV and the southern Republic of Vietnam (RVN) over the issue of reunification can be viewed as interstate, civil, or both. The third layer consisted of attempts by the United States, the Soviet Union and China to shape the outcome of the local conflicts and thus win strategic advantage in Asia. 33

6 4 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman From the years 1960 to 1975 Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Burma appeared to be the least developed when compared to Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore in terms of per capita income and GNP growth rates shown in Table 1. On the whole the Southeast Asian countries average of GNP per capita of US$328, except for Singapore and Malaysia, is below Africa s GNP per capita of US$390. The Kingdom of Thailand The Kingdom of Thailand, once known as Siam, is the only regional state not to have been subjected to European colonialism. The current Thai state dates from the eighteenth century when King Rama I founded the Chakri dynasty. In 1932 the absolute monarchy was overthrown by a military coup. 34 The constitution established in 1932 transferred authority to the People s Party, retaining the King as a constitutional figurehead with very little power. 35 The reigning King Bhumibol Adulyadej has exercised a unique personal authority in a constitutional monarchy. 36 The First SEAP Games, December 1959, Bangkok On 15 May 1950 the IOC unanimously recognized the Olympic Committee of Thailand. 37 Thailand participated in its first international competition at the Asian Games in New Delhi in 1951 and at the Olympic Games in Helsinki in 1952 without wining any medals. 38 On 22 May 1958, representatives of Burma (now Myanmar), Laos, Malaysia and Thailand, met informally at the Third Asian Games in Tokyo, to discuss a proposal to organize games similar to the Asian and Olympic Games among countries in the Southeast Asia Peninsula region. It was felt that a biennial or quadrennial international sports meet in Southeast Asia would strengthen the existing friendly relations among these countries and could provide the amateur athletes an avenue to improve their performance in preparation for the Asian and Olympic Games. It was agreed that the games would be confined to countries in the Peninsular and to invite Cambodia and Vietnam. Thailand was given the honour to host the inaugural Southeast Asia Peninsular (SEAP) Games in Future hosts for the biennial Games would be rotated in alphabetical order among members of a SEAP Games Federation to be established to promote and manage the Games. The Table 1. Population, per capita product and growth rates of selected Southeast Asian countries GNP at market Population Growth rates (%) prices (1975) GNP per capita Growth rates (%) (000) US$ millions US$ Vietnam 47,600 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Thailand 41, , Burma 30, , Malaysia 12, , Laos 3, n.a. Singapore ,510 2, Cambodia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Average 328 Notes: The computation of the average GNP per capita excluded Singapore since it is a city-state and figures were not available for Vietnam and Cambodia. Source: World Bank, Atlas: Population, Per Capita Product, and Growth Rates (Washington: World Bank, 1977), 6 8.

7 The International Journal of the History of Sport 5 constitution of the SEAP Games Federation was adopted in June 1959 and its first President was General Prabhas Charusatiara, President of the Olympic Committee of Thailand. 39 The first modern Olympic Games were held in 1896 in Athens, Greece, where 14 countries were represented. 40 The first Asian Games took place 55 years later in 1951 in New Delhi. About 500 men and women athletes took part in six sports disciplines and competed for medals in 35 events. 41 The first Southeast East Asian Peninsular (SEAP) Games were declared opened by the King of Siam, accompanied by the Queen, on 12 December A total of 480 men and 38 women athletes from Burma, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam participated in the games consisting of 12 events for men and two events (athletics and tennis) for women. The men s events consisted of athletics, badminton, basketball, boxing, cycling, football, shooting, swimming, table tennis, tennis, volleyball and weightlifting, as compiled in Appendix A. 43 The SEAP Games reversible flag had a light-blue background representing the water or the sky that surrounded the participating countries. Six bright intertwined yellow rings on the flag represented the initial six founding member countries to denote friendship, brotherly love and unity of purpose. 44 For the first time athletes of various ethnic communities in each participating country competed under their new respective national flag and symbols and post colonial identity. Every athlete s sportswear and warm-up track suit displayed the country and not the community they represented. Thailand dominated the Games by winning a total of 35 gold medals, 26 silver medals and 16 bronze medals and Burma was a distant second position with 11 gold, 15 silver and 14 bronze, as shown in Table 2. The Second SEAP Games, December 1961, Rangoon The Second SEAP Games was hosted by Burma and were declared opened by the President, U Win Maung, at the Aung San Memorial Stadium. 45 Like Thailand in the First Games, this was the first time Burma organized a multisport regional games. There was a total of 564 men and 59 women athletes representing Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam, competing in 13 events. 46 Burma overtook Thailand in the medal standing by winning a total of 82 medals with the former gaining 61 medals, as compiled in Table 3. Formation of the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 The new Federation of Malaysia consisting of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo (renamed Sabah) came into being on September On 7 August 1965 Table 2. Total medal tally of the First SEAP Games, December, Bangkok, Thailand, 1959 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Burma Malaya Singapore South Vietnam Laos Source: Aba Mardjadi, Dari SEAP Games Ke SEA Games [From SEAP Games to SEA Games] (Jakarta: Media Gema Olahraga, 1997) ix.

8 6 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Table 3. Total medal tally of the Second SEAP Games, December, Rangoon, Burma, 1961 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Burma Thailand Malaya South Vietnam Singapore Cambodia Laos Source: Organizing Committee, The Second South East Asia Peninsular Games Rangoon 1961: The Report of the Organizing Committee (Rangoon: The Organizing Committee, 1962), 119. Singapore agreed to separate from Malaysia and on 9 August, Singapore became an independent sovereign nation. 48 The separation of Singapore from Malaysia caused a minor problem in organization and representation, but it was amicably settled. Singapore, who was offered participation in the Malaysian team, decided to enter the Games as a separate nation. 49 In the same year the SEAP Games Federation (SGF) amended Rule 10 of its constitution, with the approval of all seven SEAP nations, to enable Singapore to become a full member of the Federation. 50 No games were held in 1963 because of Cambodia s disagreement over a ruling made by the International Amateur Athletic Federation over its refusal to condemn Indonesia s exclusion of Taiwan and Israel from the Asian Games. It was also learnt that Laos, next in line, might not be able to organize the Games. Thus Malaysia was formally awarded the honour of holding the Games on 25 February The Third SEAP Games, December 1965, Kuala Lumpur In spite of the ongoing second Indochina war, the Third SEAP Games was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 14 to 21 December A total of 737 men and 216 women from all the seven SEAP nations took part in the games. The female participants increased significantly by making up of 22.7 per cent of the total participants when compared to 9.5 per cent in the 1961 Games, as compiled in Appendix B. However, it can be said that Cambodia, South Vietnam and Laos were represented by small contingents of 83, 93 and 43 athletes respectively, probably due to the ongoing war that flowed over and spread in each country s territory. The Yang di-pertuan Agong of Malaysia officially declared open the third eight-day SEAP Games. 52 This was the first time that the Games opening ceremony was televised live by Radio Television Malaysia. There was also daily live coverage of various events from 2.15 pm to 5.00 pm and an half an hour daily report at 9.30 pm, featuring highlights of the daily events. 53 This was the first time that Malaysia hosted the SEAP Games. Sepak raga, a traditional game widely played in Malaysia and Thailand, was played for the first time. Malaysia won the gold medal and Thailand, the silver medal. 54 Water polo was also included in the Games for the first time with three participating countries, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore drew with Malaysia in the final round robin match but took the gold medal with a better goal average. 55 The host country managed to improve its second placing below Thailand with a total of 98 medals, as shown in Table 4. The then Federation of Malaya was ranked third in the

9 The International Journal of the History of Sport 7 Table Total medal tally of the Third SEAP Games, December, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Malaysia Singapore Burma Cambodia South Vietnam Laos Source: Organizing Committee, III SEAP Games Report, 156. overall medal standing at the first and second SEAP Games. Thailand had a major share of gold medals in tennis, cycling, shooting, boxing and judo. 56 The Fourth SEAP Games, 9 16 December 1967, Bangkok At the SEAP Games Federation meeting in 1965, Cambodia was proposed as the next hosts of the Fourth SEAP Games by Thailand and this was unanimously agreed to by all delegates. 57 However, the hosting of the Games was cancelled for the second time in its history. The SEAP Games Federation Council President, General Lon Nol of Cambodia informed each member country that the authorities responsible for Cambodian sports had instructed the Cambodian National Olympic Committee to withdraw its membership from the SEAP Games Federation altogether. This would enable Cambodian athletes to devote themselves entirely to prepare and organize the controversial GANEFO Games in Phnom Penh in November The GANEFO Games was declared irregular and illegal by many international sports federations. 58 The Thai government had already spent a large budget to renovate its main stadium (Supacharasai) and other sporting venues in 1965 to host the Fifth Asian Games. The Games took place in Bangkok in December 1966, with 18 countries and a total of 1,945 participants (1,569 males and 375 females) competing in 14 events. 59 At an emergency meeting the SEAP Games Council unanimously requested Thailand the host the Games. 60 The Fourth SEAP Games was held in Bangkok, Thailand from 9 to 14 December The King of Thailand formally declared the games opened and urged all Thai sportsmen and spectators to Strive nobly to win humbly, lose graciously and cheer fairly. Your actions mirror Thailand to the world. Give your country a good name. 61 A total of 1197 athletes and officials from six participating countries took part in the Games. It is worthy to note that the Patron of the Games, H.E. King Bhumibol, and the President of the Organizing Committee, Air Chief Marshall Dawee Chullasapya, both set a precedent by participating in the Yachting events and winning Gold medals in the OK Dinghy Class and the Flying Dutchman Class respectively. Another unique event took place when Her Majesty the Queen presented the Gold medals to His Majesty the King and Her Royal daughter, a family affair unlikely ever to be repeated at future Games. 62 Thailand convincingly topped the medal tally with 77 gold, 48 silver and 47 bronze medals as compiled in Table 5.

10 8 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Table 5. Total medal tally of the Fourth SEAP Games, 9 16 December, Bangkok, Thailand, 1967 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Singapore Malaysia Burma South Vietnam Laos Source: Organizing Committee, Official Report: Eighth SEAP Games Bangkok 1975 (Bangkok: The Organizing Committee, 1976), 293. The Fifth SEAP Games, 6 13 December 1969, Rangoon In 1967 the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established in Bangkok comprising the foreign ministers of Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand and the deputy prime minister of Malaysia. The initial objective was to place regional reconciliation (in the wake of Indonesia s Confrontation of Malaysia) within an institutionalized structure of relations. 63 One week before the Fifth SEAP Games to be held in Rangoon, in December 1969, Singapore proposed to expand the games to include Indonesia and the Philippines. 64 The main opposition to include Indonesia and the Philippines came from the Thai delegates who felt the Games should be confined to the seven founder members. However, Singapore s initiative to invite Cambodia to rejoin the Federation was accepted by the delegates. 65 The Fifth SEAP Games was declared open by a Representative of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, Brigadier San Yu, Minister for National Planning, Finance and Revenue and Vice-chief of Staff. 66 Host Burma lead the medal tables with 57 gold, 46 silver and 43 bronze medals, as compiled in Table 6. The Khmer Republic, King Sihanouk s Prime Minister, General Lon Nol, took power through a coup d état in 1970 and declared the Khmer Republic. 67 Lon Nol s paranoid hatred of Vietnam and the Vietnamese was matched by his Khmer chauvinism and inflated sense of Khmer greatness 68 The SEAP Games Federation wanted Singapore to host the 1971 Games but the Republic were unable to host the Games because facilities would not be ready by Table 6. Fifth SEAP Games, 6 13 December, Rangoon, Burma, 1969 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Burma Thailand Singapore Malaysia South Vietnam Laos Source: Organizing Committee, V SEAP Games, 187.

11 The International Journal of the History of Sport 9 Table 7. Sixth SEAP Games, December, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1971 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Malaysia Singapore Burma Khmer South Vietnam Laos Source: Organizing Committee, 6th SEAP Games Report 1971 (Kuala Lumpur: The Organizing Committee, 1973), 81. The Sixth SEAP Games, December 1971, Kuala Lumpur The Yang di-pertuan Agong of Malaysia opened the sixth SEAP Games at Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur in the presence of a crowd of 20,000. Contingents of the seven participating countries, namely Burma, Khmer (formerly Cambodia), Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and South Vietnam took part in the opening ceremony. 70 Malaysia performed very well by having a total of 139 medals, 30 more medals than Thailand. However, Thailand was placed first in the medal standing by having 44 gold medals, three more than Malaysia s 41 gold medals, as compiled in Table 7. The Seventh SEAP Games, 1 8 September 1973, Singapore The Republic of Singapore hosted its first SEAP Games in About 50,000 people watched President Sheares declare open the seventh SEAP Games amid spectacular pageantry in the National Stadium on 1 September Radio and Television Singapore provided daily live telecast of selected matches for athletics, diving, swimming, water-polo and soccer matches with commentaries in the English and Chinese languages. 72 The city-state, like the previous SEAP Games hosts, did well by garnering a total of 142 medals and was ranked second in the medal standing by having 45 gold medals. Thailand was ranked first with 47 gold medals, as shown in Table 8. The Eighth SEAP Games, 9 16 December 1975, Bangkok In June 1973 the Honorary Secretary of the Singapore National Olympic Council (SNOC) went to Vietnam, Khmer and Laos to find out if these countries would be able to host the Table 8. Seventh SEAP Games, 1 8 September, Singapore, 1973 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Singapore Malaysia Burma Khmer South Vietnam Laos Source: Singapore National Olympic Committee, 7th SEAP Games Report (Singapore: SNOC, 1973), 3.

12 10 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Table 9. Eighth SEAP Games, 9 16 December, Bangkok, Thailand, 1975 Country Gold Silver Bronze Total Thailand Singapore Burma Malaysia Total Source: Organizing Committee, Official Report: Eight SEAP Games, 293. Eighth SEAP Games as they had yet to do so. In August 1973 representatives from these countries explained why they were unable to host the Games and Thailand accepted the SNOC s request to organize the Games. 73 The Eighth SEAP Games was declared opened by the King of Thailand on 10 December Only athletes from Burma, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand took part in the Games. South Vietnam, Laos and Khmer were absent due to ongoing domestic and territorial conflicts. 74 Thailand dominated the Games and the medal tally with the most gold and silver medals, as shown in Table 9. Conclusion The organization of the multi-sports SEAP Games by Thailand (1959 and 1967), Burma (1961 and 1969), Malaysia (1965 and 1971) and Singapore (1973) provided them with experience to improve mass and elite sports development in the post-war and post-colonial era. It also allowed athletes from poor countries and war torn countries like Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos to participate for the first time in a regional multi-sports event. The Games provided new opportunities for the athletes and newly formed countries to develop national identities and to compete at a higher level at either the Asian Games or Olympic Games. Mass Communication and the SEAP Games By and large the countries involved in the SEAP Games depended very much on the print media to reach the general and more specifically the urban population. Although monochrome was introduced into Thailand in 1955 and to Malaysia 75 and Singapore in 1963, 76 it was accessible primarily in the urban area, with the exception of Singapore which is a city-state. Moreover, the number of television sets per 1000 persons in Thailand and Malaysia in 1970 was seven and 22 respectively, as shown in Table 10. Therefore Singaporeans, Malaysians and the Burmese were very much dependent on the sport pages of their newspapers for the reporting of the Games. The anti-communist President Ngo Dinh Diem ruled South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963 as a dictator closing down newspapers critical of his government. Following Diem s demise, General Nguyen Van Thieu consolidated his rule in 1968, by continuing to weed out opposition papers. 77 The Vietnamese were fed with the state controlled press and had very little inkling of what was happening in the outside world. Like Vietnam, the media infrastructure in Cambodia and Laos was almost non-existent due to uncertain regime changes, war damage and destruction. Women and the SEAP Games During the inaugural Games in 1959, a total of 38 women from four countries competed in two events, athletics and tennis. Laos and Singapore did not have any female athletes in

13 The International Journal of the History of Sport 11 Table 10. Key indicators of media development in each SEAP games country Country Population in 1975 (million) Daily newspaper circulation in 1970 (copies per 1000 person) TV receivers in 1970 (sets per 1000 persons) Thailand Burma NA Malaysia Singapore South Vietnam NA NA NA Cambodia 7.10 NA NA Laos 3.43 NA NA Sources: Asian Development Bank, Key Indicators of Developing Member Countries of ADB (Makati: Economic Office/Asian Development Bank, 1987), 1 2; Organising Committee, V Seap Games, 188; Programme, Technical and Facilities Sub-Committee, 7th SEAP Games, Singapore 1973, 1 8 September: Register of Entries (Singapore: Singapore National Olympic Committee, 1973), ii; Organizing Committee, Official Report: Eighth SEAP Games, 295. their contingent as shown in Appendices A and B. No women were allowed to compete at the first modern Olympic Games. In 1900, in Paris, women participated for the first time, but only in tennis. In 1904, in St Louis, archery was added. In 1924, in Paris, there was a women s event for fencing. It was not until in the Amsterdam Olympic Games of 1928 that women took part in athletics for the first time. 78 At the 1959 SEAP Games, women comprised of 7.3 per cent of the total participants, as compiled in Table 11, whereas women athletes at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games consisted of 11.4 per cent of all competitors. However, from 1961 to 1975 the women s events increased from six to eight and the percentage of women athletes out of the total number of competitors increased to 22.7 per cent in 1965, 21.4 per cent in 1969, 28.2 per cent in 1973 and 18.7 per cent in The SEAP Games had greater female representation than the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games (13.4 per cent), 1968 Mexico Olympic Games (14.2 per cent) and the 1972 Munich Olympic Games (14.6 per cent). This greater women s representation in the SEAP Games suggest that women of participating countries were not neglected and were given sufficient opportunities in represent their respective countries and contribute towards a national identity through sports as part of nation building. Table 11. Comparing the percentage of women participation in the Olympic Games and the SEAP Games, Olympic games Total competitors Women SEAP games Total competitors Women 1960, Rome 5, (11.4%) 1959, Bangkok (7.3%) 1964, Tokyo 5, (13.4%) 1965, Kuala Lumpur (22.7%) 1968, Mexico 5, (14.2%) 1969, Rangoon (21.4%) 1972, Munich 7,173 1,058 (14.6%) 1973, Singapore 1, (28.2%) 1976, Montreal 6,024 1,246 (20.7%) 1975, Bangkok (18.7%) Sources: David Wallechinsky and Jaime Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics: 2012 Edition (London: Aurum Press, 2012), 1; Organising Committee, V Seap Games, 188; Programme, Technical and Facilities Sub- Committee, 7th SEAP Games, Singapore September: Register of Entries, ii; Organizing Committee, Official Report: Eighth SEAP Games, 295.

14 12 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Outstanding Athletes of the SEAP Games The Thais dominate in boxing, cycling and shooting. The Burmese lead in athletics and weightlifting and Singapore in swimming and yachting. But generally, the gold medals have been distributed evenly, with Malaysia a fair share of all round strengths. South Vietnam, Cambodia (Khmer) and Laos did not fare well because of the wars in their countries. 79 From the years 1965 to 1973 Singapore s Patricia Chan won a total of 39 gold medals in the individual and relay swimming events, as compiled in Appendix C. It was a feat that will not be equaled for a long time. She was also the only female athlete to win 10 gold medals on each meeting in 1967 and Male Singapore swimmers with multiple medals included Tan Thuan Heng s 27 gold medals, Alex Chan s 15 gold medals and Roy Chan s 11 gold medals gathered in their individual and relay events spanning over several SEAP Games, as compiled in Appendix D. The only male athlete with the highest (seven) gold medals in one single Games was Thai cyclist Preeda Chullamondhol s sterling performance in The most decorated men s long distance runner was Burma s Sumbwegan with six Games totaling five gold, three silver and one bronze medals, noting particularly his double goal medal performances in the 10,000 metres and marathon in 1965 and 1967 as shown in Appendix E. He obtained his last silver medal in the marathon in 1971 when 47 years old. 82 Another notable Burmese middle and long distance runner was Jimmy Crampton with nine gold and two silver medals in the 800 metres, 1,500 metres and 5,000 metres events from 1969 to The Burmese began to employ two German coaches in the early 1970s to specialize on the middle and long distance races. 83 The outstanding sprinter of the Games was Thailand s Anat Ratanapol with a 10 gold medal haul for the 100 metres, 200 metres, metres relay and the 200 metres relay. The 24-year-old army lietenant was voted top male athlete of the Sixth SEAP Games for winning the 100 and 200 metres and anchoring Thailand to victory in the metres relay. 84 In 1979, a statue of Anat Ratanapol was erected at the Hockey Stadium in Bangkok after he won the 1970 and 1974 Asian Games 100 and 200 metres titles. 85 After winning the 200 metres Asian Games gold medal, Anat observed that his countrymen have learnt to appreciate and take up athletics. 86 The most consistent field athletes were Malaysian Kamaruddin Maidin with four consecutive gold medals ( ) in the men s long jump, Malaysian Nashatar Singh with six consecutive ( ) gold medals in the men s javelin, and Burmese Jennifer Tin Lay s five consecutive gold medal ( ) in the women s shot put, as compiled in Appendix F. In the team events the Singapore water polo team won consecutively all six gold medals after water polo was introduced at the Games in The SEAP Games saw the inclusion of an indigenous Asian and Southeast Asian game, sepak takraw men s team event, included in the 1965, 1971, 1973 and 1975 Games series, thus shaping the Games with its own regional identity. The First Olympic Medal from SEAP Games Participants and Countries Thailand s fly weightlifter Chaiya Sukchinda had the distinction of obtaining gold medals six times in a row from 1959 to and also breaking the world flyweight record lift of lb held by a Russian for the clean and jerk.89 However, Singaporean weightlifter Tan Howe Liang who won a gold medal for the lightweight weightlifting event at the inaugural Games 90 was the first Southeast Asian athlete to win an Olympic medal by coming in second for the lightweight weightlifting event at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games. 91

15 The International Journal of the History of Sport 13 It was not until 1976 that Thailand achieved an Olympic bronze medal in boxing at the Montreal Olympic Games. 92 In 1992 Malaysia s Razif and Jailani Sidek made history by winning the country s first bronze medals for the badminton men s double event at the Barcelona Olympic Games. 93 Postscript: From SEAP Games ( ) to the SEA Games ( ) The Khmer Rouge seized power on 17 April 1975 in the name of the Royal Government of National Unification. On 5 January 1976 a new constitution was promulgated in Phnom Penh establishing the State of Democratic Kampucha. 94 On 26 April 1976, the first anniversary of the northern victory, elections was held for the national assembly of all Vietnam. By July 1976 the two Vietnams were formally unified, the DVR dissolved, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) proclaimed with Hanoi as its capital. 95 The Lao People s Revolutionary Party, which was created from the Communist Party of Indochina, consolidated its power in the wake of the Communist victory in Vietnam. In December 1975 it established the Lao s Democratic Republic, displacing the Kingdom of Laos. 96 In December 1969 Singapore proposed to expand the games to include Indonesia and the Philippines. However, the proposal was not accepted. The proposal to change the name of SEAP to Southeast Asian Games was also shelved. 97 The main opposition to include Indonesia and the Philippines came from the Thai delegates who felt the Games should be confined to the seven founder members. 98 However, Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam withdrew from the Games in 1975 as they were approaching the end of their state of war and conflict. 99 In 1975 Malaysia agreed to host the 1977 Games on the condition that Indonesia and the Philippines were invited to join the SEAP Games Federation, ten years after this idea was met with strong disapproval. This proposal was unanimously approved by the SEAP Games Federation Council with the absence of the Lao, Cambodia and South Vietnam delegates. 100 In 1977 Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, Singapore and new comers, Indonesia, Philippines and Brunei participated in the Ninth Southeast East Asian (SEA) Games. 101 Against all odds the spirit of the Games prevailed. The Malaysians believed the Vietnamese, Laotians and Cambodians would be joining the Games sooner rather than later. 102 Cambodia returned to the Games in 1983, followed by Vietnam and Laos in The second part of the enduring history of the SEA Games ( ) about the contribution and unique legacy of these regional Games remains to be told. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Notes on Contributors Associate Professor Mohd Salleh Aman is the Director and Dean of the University of Malaya s Sports Centre. Dr Lim Peng Han obtained his PhD from the Department of Information Science at Loughborough University in He is currently the Visiting Research Fellow at the Sports Centre, University of Malaya.

16 14 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman Notes 1. Michael Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics of South-East Asia (London: Routledge, 1995), Brian Harrison, Southeast Asia: A Short History (London: Macmillan, 1966), ix x. 3. J.S. Furnivall, Netherlands India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1939), xv. 4. J. Watson, Straits Settlements Annual Report of the Education Department for the Year 1929 (Singapore: Government Printing Office, 1930), Khoo Kay Kim, The Formation of the Federated Malay States, in Cheah Boon Kheng (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Early Modern History (Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2001), Michael W. Charney, A History of Modern Burma (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), John F. Cady, A History of Modern Burma (New York: Cornell University Press, 1958), F.S.V. Donnison, Burma (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1970), Jan Pluvier, Southeast Asia From Colonialism to Independence (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), Joy Jumper and Marjorie Weiner Normand, Vietnam, in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1964), Roger M. Smith, Cambodia, in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1964), Roger M. Smith, Laos, in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1964), Pluvier, South-East Asia, F.S.V. Donnison, British Military Administration in the Far East: (London: Her Majesty s Stationery Office, 1956), Pluvier, South-East Asia, M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Indonesia Since c. 1200, 3rd ed. (Hamshire: Palgrave, 2001), Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, Cady, A History of Modern Burma, Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, Donnison, British Military Administration, Singapore to Remain a Separate Colony, Straits Times, 12 October Harrison, Southeast Asia, PAP Romps Home With Landslide Victory, Straits Times, 31 May 1959, J. Norman Palmer, Malaysia, in George McTurnan Kahin (ed.), Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1964), Jumper and Normand, Vietnam, Pluvier, South-East Asia, Harrison, Southeast Asia, D.R. SarDesai, Vietnam: The Struggle for National Identity, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), Martin Stuart-Fox, A History of Laos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), Smith, Cambodia, David Chandler, A History of Cambodia, 4th ed. (Colorado: Westview Press, 2008), Jan Ovesen and Ing-Britt Trankell, Cambodia, in Colin Mackerras (ed.), Ethnicity in Asia (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), William S. Turley, The Second Indochina War: A Concise and Military History, 2nd ed. (Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2009), Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, David K. Wyatt, Thailand: A Short History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, National Olympic Committee of Thailand, Establishment of the Olympic Committee of Thailand Under the Royal Patronage of H.M. the King, National Olympic Committee of Thailand,

17 The International Journal of the History of Sport Sombat Karnjanakit and Supitr Samahoto, Thailand and the Asian Games: Coping with Crisis, in Fan Hong (ed.), Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism (London: Routledge, 2007), Ong Poh Choo, History of the SEA Games, Sports 21, no. 2 (1993), David Miller, The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC: Athens to Beijing (Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Company, 2008), Mithlesh K. Singh Sisodia, India and the Asian Games: From Infancy to Maturity, in Fan Hong (ed.), Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism (London: Routledge, 2007), Colourful Games Opening, Straits Times, 13 December 1959, Organizing Committee, The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the First South East Asia Peninsular Games (Bangkok: The Organizing Committee, 1960), Organizing Committee, The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the First South East Asia Peninsular Games, Malaysians Tipped Top Honours in Athletes, Straits Times, 12 December 1961, Organizing Committee, The Second South East Asia Peninsular Games Rangoon 1961: The Report of the Organizing Committee (Rangoon: The Organizing Committee, 1962), Harrison, Southeast Asia, Ministry of Culture, Singapore Year Book 1964 (Singapore: Ministry of Culture, 1965), Organising Committee, III SEAP Games: Kuala Lumpur 1965 (Kuala Lumpur: South East Asia Peninsular Games Federation, 1966), Ernest Frida, Games in Pnom Penh, Straits Times, 22 December 1965, Organising Committee, III SEAP Games Report, Mansoor Rahman, King to Open the Capital s First SEAP Games at Impressive Ceremony, Straits Times, 12 December 1965, TV Live and Well, Straits Times, 17 December 1965, Organising Committee, III SEAP Games Report, Ibid, Lim Kee Chan, World Record, Straits Times, 16 December 1965, Ernest Frida, Games in Pnom Penh, Straits Times, Straits Times, 22 December 1965, Organising Council, Fourth SEAP Games Bangkok: Official Report (Bangkok: Organising Council, 1968), Karnjanakit and Samahoto, Thailand and the Asian Games, Organising Council, Fourth SEAP Games Bangkok: Official Report (Bangkok: Organising Council, 1967), Norman Siebel, King to Sportsmen in Sunswept Stadium: Strive Nobly to Win Humbly and Lose Graciously, Straits Times, 10 December 1967, Organising Committee, V SEAP Games: Official Report Rangoon, 1969 (Rangoon: Organizing Committee, 1970), Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, A Boost for Sports, Straits Times, 7 December 1969, Stage the Games in 1971 Appeal to Singapore, Straits Times, 7 December 1969, Organizing Committee, V SEAP Games, Ovesen and Trankell, Cambodia, Marie Alexandrine Martin, Cambodia a Shattered Society, revised and updated (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), Stage the Games in 1971 Appeal to Singapore, Straits Times, 7 December 1969, ,000 Cheers as King Opens 6 th Seap Games, Straits Times, 12 December 1971, R. Chandran, Sheares opens SEAP Games, Straits Times, 2 September 1973, When to Tune in to Today s Games, Straits Times, 2 September 1973, Organizing Committee, Official Report: Eighth SEAP Games, Condensed Games the Last of the SEAP Series?, Straits Times, 9 December 1975, TV Malaysia (Only Four years Old) is Baby of the Ministry, Straits Times, 17 February 1968, Tan Yew Soon and Soh Yew Peng, The Development of Singapore s Modern Media Industry (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1994), David G. Marr, Introduction, in David G. Marr (ed.), The Mass Media in Vietnam (Canberra: Australian National University, 1998), 3.

18 16 P.H. Lim and M.S. Aman 78. Xenophon L. Messinesi, The History of the Olympic Games (New York: Drake Publishers Inc, 1976), Teoh Eng Huat, Thank You for a Great Show, Straits Times, 9 September 1973, Tony Francis, I Want to Catch Up on What I Have Been Missing, Straits Times, 9 September 1973, Norman Siebel, Ten-Gold Pat Girl With Midas Touch, Straits Times, 16 December 1967, E. Frida, Burma s Pride Will Find it Tough to Get a Treble, Straits Times, 11 December 1971, Tan Kim Seng, Burma s Quiet Confidence, Straits Times, 23 November 1975, Anat Voted Meet s Best, Straits Times, 18 December 1979, Ratanapol Honoured, Straits Times, 21 November 1979, Anat: I Run for My People, New Nation, 1 September 1973, Albert Johnson, It Means So Much to Me, Straits Times, 2 February 1977, Record 6th by Chaiya, Straits Times, 14 December 1971, Lim Kee Chan, World Record, Straits Times, 16 December 1965, Organizing Committee, The Official Report, Tan Roars Through to a Silver Straits Times, 9 September 1960, Sombat Karnjanakit and Supitr Samahoto, Thailand and the Asian Games, Roy Ward, Men s Doubles, World Badminton 20, no. 3 (1992), Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, SarDesai, Vietnam, Leifer, Dictionary of the Modern Politics, A Boost for Sports, Straits Times, 7 December 1969, p Stage the Games in 1971 Appeal to Singapore, Straits Times, 7 December 1969, New Life for the Games, Asiaweek 3, no. 47 (1977): Percy Seneviratne, SEAP to be Expanded, Straits Times, 13 December 1975, Aba Mardjadi, Dari SEAP Games Ke SEA Games [From SEAP Games to SEA Games], xiii New Life for the Games, 31.