TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

Transcription

1 OLYMPIANS

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures... 1 List of Tables... 1 Executive Summary... 2 Project Management... 3 Hull Design and Structural Analysis... 5 Development and Testing... 7 Construction Project Schedule Drawing Appendix A - References... A Appendix B - Mixture Proportions... B Appendix C - Bill of Materials... F Appendix D - Example Structural Calculation... G LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Revenues... 3 Figure 2: Expenses... 3 Figure 3: Transport case... 6 Figure 4: Test of rib strength... 8 Figure 5: Mould with cut-outs LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Engineering Properties of Concrete Mixtures... 2 Table 2: Load Cases... 6 Table 3: Decision Matrix

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Western Engineering Concrete Canoe Association (WECCA) is proud to represent Western University (UWO) at this year s Canadian National Concrete Canoe Competition (CNCCC). WECCA strives to provide students with an engaging extra-curricular activity to practice technical skills while developing project management, organizational and communication abilities through the scheduling, design and construction of a concrete canoe. Over the course of the school year, WECCA s 30 members worked cohesively to create Odyssey. The team is made up of undergraduate students from a variety of engineering disciplines and years of education. The ancient Greek theme of Odyssey was chosen based on Homer s poem of the epic ten year journey Odysseus completed after the Trojan War. Throughout the journey, Odysseus proves himself strong and determined. These two qualities represent the team this year strength in both our canoe and our members to withstand competition and determination to achieve goals despite trials that occurred throughout the year. These qualities will assist WECCA in achieving our best placement, after achieving 9 th in 2014, 5 th in 2013 and 10 th in This year, WECCA s goals were to improve accuracy in construction and efficiency of processes. The team researched methods to create a double mould, and though it was infeasible to complete this year, left a solid foundation of knowledge for future teams to build upon. Our efficiency was demonstrated through the speed with which we cast Odyssey, which was achieved through effective preparation such as preparing dry mixtures prior to casting day. The concrete mixture and canoe designs were made with the racing environment in mind. The canoe weighs 127.7kg, is 6.16m in length, 0.37m in depth and 0.5m wide. The wet and oven-dried unit weights and engineering properties of each concrete mixture included in our canoe are highlighted in Table 1 below. Hex wire mesh was used as the reinforcement in the canoe, giving additional tensile strength properties. Table 1: Engineering Properties of Concrete Mixtures Shell Rib Shell, no medium beads Wet Unit Weight (kg) Oven-Dried Unit Weight (kg) Compressive Strength (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Rib, no medium beads WECCA is proud to present the stunning blue and white Odyssey to the CNCCC

4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT With a team of 30 students varying in age and engineering discipline, the WECCA captains utilized various project management techniques to stay on schedule and achieve goals. Regular communication was the foundation for our team s cohesive work and successful canoe creation. General team meetings were held on a bi-weekly basis to keep members informed of the progress of mould and concrete design, as well fundraising and other events. In addition, meetings were held by captains to specifically discuss critical tasks and objectives within their scope of work. Since in-person conversations were not always feasible, executives used , Facebook messaging, and online polling websites such as SurveyMonkey to keep members involved and informed. Throughout the year, the safety of each task was considered. All members involved in the mould and canoe construction took shop training through Western University and were required to wear personal protective equipment throughout the year. WECCA s 2015 income came from a variety of sources. The team held various new fundraising events, such as a movie night at the campus theatre, while continuing traditions like a grilled cheese lunch. A detailed breakdown of the fund allocation is shown in Figure 1 and funding sources in Figure 2. Various tasks deemed paramount for construction were completed to prepare for casting the canoe. Throughout the year, cement and additives were mixed to find ideal proportions for strength and weight, tested through cast cylinders. Simultaneously, repairs and iterations were made to R2D2 s male mould for reuse and cost savings. Odyssey was cast on March 7 th and upon completion of curing it will be sanded, stained, and sealed, aiming for completion by the end of April as per the Project Schedule. Overall, Odyssey took approximately 700 man-hours to complete and the WECCA team is proud of the quality results produced. $ $ $ $ $ $ Team - internal RMCAO Materials - Concrete $1, $ $1, $ Total Sponsorship $1, $3, $ $ Materials - Mould Theme Paddle Training - Pool Competition - Registration Competition - Hotel Competition - Transport $1, $5, Total Fundraising UEDF WESEF Competition Fees Team Fees Figure 1: Expenses Competition - misc Figure 2: Revenues 3

5 LOGISTICS CONSTRUCTION BUSINESS Captain Michael Nelson Year 4 3 years registered, 1 year participating Captain Macullah Pinkney Year 3 1 year registered Captain David Bocking Year 4 1 year registered, 2 years participating Head of Technical Communications Alicia Lenny Year 4 2 years registered Head of Materials Mike Harvey Year 3 4 years participating Head of Web Design Corrine Dawson Year 3 4 years participating Head of Technical Presentation Robert Gratton Year 2 2 years registered Head of Materials Robert Gratton Year 2 2 years registered Head of Graphic Design Megan Janes Year 4 2 years registered, 1 year participating Head of Mould Design and Construction Mitchell Morrison Year 2 2 years registered Paddling Co-ordinator Nicole Wight Year 4 2 years registered, 1 year participating Head of Design and Analysis Corrine Dawson Year 3 4 years participating 4

6 HULL DESIGN AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS The hull design of Odyssey sought to optimize a number of canoe design and performance factors, including Odyssey s strength, weight, manoeuvrability, and speed. The specifications given in the standard NCCC hull design has proved successful in meeting design goals in the past. Based on R2D2 s success, this hull shape is a good overall compromise between speed, control and paddling efficiency. This encouraged the decision to base Odyssey on the NCCC design with slight modifications. As the competition is to be held on Lake Ontario, larger waves and currents are expected in comparison to previous years. Due to this projected change in racing conditions, the increased hull height of 0.37m was maintained in the construction of Odyssey, minimizing the amount of water taken on by the canoe. The team determined that manoeuvrability was more important than maintaining a straight course, so a round hull was designed. Last year, the team experimented with adding ribs to R2D2 to increase stiffness and reduce longitudinal cracking. Although these ribs were effective, there was room for improvement. In designing Odyssey, the four ribs were spaced equilaterally throughout the length of the canoe, as was done previously. However, after researching the effects of thickness and width of the ribs, changes were made. The newly constructed ribs are twice the standard hull thickness of 27mm, and built with a stronger concrete to further increase hull strength and counteract the stresses. Foam bulkheads were incorporated into the canoe to ensure that, with the added weight of the sandbags, it would float when fully submerged. Using Microsoft Excel, an analysis was completed to determine the required volume for each bulkhead, resulting in a volume for each bulkhead of 1.49x10 2 m 3, which were placed at the bow and stern. Noting that these would be covered with 27mm of concrete mixture, it was predicted that the canoe would weigh approximately 128 kg. The speed of Odyssey was estimated assuming that the hull was a displacement type with the water line length assumed as the overall length. The displacement hull speed is the maximum speed at which the hull becomes trapped between a large bow and quarter wave. The hull speed of 12.8km/h was calculated using the commonly used relationship shown in Equation 1 (Gillmer 1982). 5

7 S knots = 1.34 L W (ft) Equation 1 Analysis of the canoe was completed to determine the maximum tensile and compressive strength capacities of the canoe hull in common modes of use. These modes included two paddlers, four paddlers, carry, and transport cases. Following common practice in naval architecture (Gilmer 1982) Odyssey was analyzed as a supported beam, and the cross section taken as a rectangular U-shape. Bending moment diagrams, under the different loading conditions, were used to determine the locations of maximum moment. The compressive and tensile stresses were computed at each of these locations. The case in which the canoe was transported with gunnels down and supports at each end, shown in Figure 3 was found to be the critical case. For each scenario, a net force distribution curve was developed along the longitudinal length of the canoe. The force curve was integrated to find the shear distribution curve, and integrated again to find the moment distribution curve. The results of the structural analysis are included in Table 2. A sample calculation can be found in Appendix D. Figure 3: Transport case Table 2: Load Cases Due to the limited tensile strength of the concrete, and the small area of chicken wire, the canoe was analyzed as a fully composite section. The maximum tensile strength was calculated with Equation 2, giving a value of 2.01 MPa. Compressive strength was approximated based on 28 day tests of concrete mixes cast in cylinders, giving 9.3 MPa. σ = σ RFT A RFT +σ concrete A concrete A Equation 2 Buckling of the gunnels was examined in the case of the waterline being at the canoe gunnels. In this case, the gunnels act as cantilevers and the hydrostatic pressure acts as a triangular distributed load on the sides of the canoe. This resulted in a maximum tensile stress of 1.45 MPa, and is considered a very conservative value due to this being a rare case and was given a large safety factor. Load Case Compressive Stress (MPa) Tensile Stress (MPa) Maximum Stress Location 4 paddlers Gunnel 2 paddlers Gunnel Carry Keel Transport Gunnel 6

8 DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING Achieving a uniform casting thickness has been a difficulty WECCA has faced previously and as such, was deemed a critical area for improvement this year. The team was interested in utilizing a double mould which would assist in the goal of creating a canoe of uniform thickness before sanding. This type of mould would also maintain uniform curvature with a smoother finish and would reduce the time spent sanding. However, as described below, testing brought forward problems relating to the creation of a double mould. Research began by determining the different types of double moulds, materials and cost effective methods. Three ideas were brainstormed and compared using the decision matrix shown in Error! Reference source not found.3. Table 3: Decision Matrix The Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) combined mould, utilizing a wooden skeleton female mould proved to be the most beneficial. After costs were analyzed and determined reasonable, effort went into the development of appropriate concrete. A high viscosity mix was created, and placed in a test mould. The baseline mix for the double mould was the final mix used for R2D2 last year with modifications. First, latex paint was removed as it reduces slump. Water was added to achieve a water-cement ratio of 0.4. To increase the slump of the concrete, the maximum recommended amount of Glenium 7700 admixture was used. The first problem became evident when three cast cylinders from the same mixture had different weights and strengths. Moreover, each cylinder showed segregation due to the lightweight aggregate floating in the low viscosity mix. 7

9 More mixtures were tested, changing one variable in each mixture. Seven and twentyeight day compressive strength tests and twenty-eight day tensile strength tests were conducted to determine the effects of these modifications. To reach a viscosity suitable for a double mould, the maximum amount of water was removed however, segregation persisted. To further counteract the segregation that was occurring, BASF Delvo Stabilizer was tested in a mix without super plasticizer but the product reacted with other components resulting in a compressive strength of 1MPa. Holcim Canada donated a viscosity modifier admixture that the team tested but found an increased amount of segregation when the recommended amount was used. In the end, a high viscosity mix was created and placed in a test mould. After letting this mixture cure for a week, the trial was considered a success. However, due to the complexity introduced by a full size canoe, 3D modeling difficulties, and inability to align reinforcement while utilizing macrofibers, it was decided that more development would be required before a double mould could be successfully implemented. When the double mould design was deemed unfeasible for this year, the objectives for the concrete mixture changed. By using a denser, higher strength concrete to create ribs and a less dense mixture for the shell, the overall weight of the canoe was decreased while increasing the strength of the canoe at crucial sections. The mixtures had the same water-cement ratio which assisted in the bonding at the joints. The baseline rib mixture design was the same as R2D2 s while the shell mix was the same as R2D2 s baseline rib mixture with an extra 25% of PORAVER Expanded Glass Beads. A second test mould was built to test the bonding and strength of the rib and shell mixtures as shown in Figure 24. A test mould was hand crafted to represent a smaller scale model comparable to the canoe. Once the concrete was cured, the joint between the two mixtures was analyzed to ensure this practice was effective. This sample proved strong and durable, so this method was used to create stronger ribs on this year s canoe in comparison to canoes of years past. Figure 1: Test of rib strength 8

10 The mixture proportions were chosen based on repetitive testing of buoyancy, strength and fracture patterns of cast cylinders along with considerations for sustainability and ease of casting. The maximum allowable amount of Type 1 Portland Cement, 50%, was used as the base of the mixture. To maximize the gradation of the mix, 39% of the cementitious mix is Class C Fly Ash and 11% is Silica Fume. PORAVER Expanded Glass Beads were the aggregate chosen for their low density and large range of sizes. This allowed gradation of the aggregates, increasing strength and decreasing void space. Other air entraining admixtures were tested to reduce density, however these greatly comprised strength. Recycled latex paint was used to replace approximately 10% of the water to improve the workability and sustainability of the concrete. As compared to microfibers used in WECCA s previous canoes, the MasterFiber MAC 100 were found to increase tensile strength by 0.4 MPa. Additionally, WECCA decided to use hex wire netting due to its flexibility, low density and formability. The hex wire s open area is 89%. The final design density of the shell mix is 861 kg/m 3 with a compressive strength of 9.3 MPa and a tensile strength of 2.1 MPa. The rib s design density was 920 kg/m 3 with a compressive strength of 9.6 MPa and tensile strength of 2.4 MPa. Although the team was not able to implement the double mould this year, a large amount of research and testing was completed, creating a good foundation for future teams to build upon. In conclusion, the mixtures chosen for Odyssey were developed and tested to ensure a buoyant, strong, and sustainable canoe. 9

11 CONSTRUCTION This year, WECCA s main focus was the continuous improvement of the accuracy and efficiency of the team s construction processes. Two goals were outlined at the start of the year: to research a combined mould for future use and to reduce redundant processes in the current mould and casting practices. R2D2 s mould was designed to be reusable, increasing sustainability and efficiency. Since the male mould was previously created, the team began researching double mould methods. However, WECCA had difficultly creating a 3D CAD model of the mould, and after surpassing the amount of time allocated by the critical path of the project, the combined mould became infeasible. R2D2 s Vertical CNC Foam mould consisted of vertical cross sections of 2.54 cm thick FOAMULAR Rigid Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Foam insulation. At the beginning of the year, this mould was taken apart to fix damaged pieces and to remove last year s rib cross sections. The rib cross sections were redesigned as described in Hull Design and Structural Analysis, created in SolidWorks and transposed into a.dxf file to be created via CNC by J. Murphy CNC Woodworking in Guelph, Ontario. Assembly of the mould was completed by sliding each cross section onto 3.05m PVC pipe and using Tuck Tape to create a smooth surface to which the concrete wouldn t adhere. Last year, the team had trouble removing the mould due to a suction force developed between the mould and the concrete. To rectify this, the mould was separated into three pieces and two sets of cut-outs were placed over the length. The cut-outs, shown in Figure 35 gave access to portions of the mould which could be taken out during form removal. Once the mould was placed on the plywood platform, the hex wire mesh reinforcement was Figure 2: Mould with cut-outs between the mould and the concrete. formed to the mould, with spacers placed to ensure clearance 10

12 This year the base was redesigned to make placing concrete easier and more ergonomic, while creating an economic and sustainable base. A plywood platform reinforced by 2x6 pieces was placed on top of three 1.8m folding tables. To protect the wood base from moisture, vapour barrier was stapled to the plywood. The tables and plywood were all easily deconstructed, stored and reused for future casting. On March 7 th, the team gathered for a site safety meeting and then cast the canoe. A majority of members were tasked with placing concrete which allowed for breaks and maintained consistent placing which avoided cold joints. In order to create a canoe of uniform depth, gauges were created out of straws with washers to indicate concrete level and pinned to the mould. Another group of members produced concrete using dry mixtures that were prepared prior to casting day. Tests were performed on the concrete batches as they were prepared. Halfway through casting the canoe, the medium size of PORAVER Expanded Glass Beads ran out due to an incorrect shipment. Revised mixtures were developed by replacing the missing medium beads with equal parts large and small beads as substitutes, which resulted in a stronger yet heavier mixture for part of the canoe as shown in Table 1. This casting day process was over two hours faster than the previous year and the fastest to date for the team, completed in approximately 4 hours. This showed a marked improvement in efficiency due to premade dry mixtures, designated roles and a well-constructed mould and base. Immediately following casting, the canoe was covered with wet burlap and vapour barrier to retain moisture and prevent evaporation. The canoe was sprayed with water every three hours for the first seven days to keep the burlap damp and the canoe properly hydrated. For the rest of the twenty-eight day process the mould was removed and the canoe was placed in Western University s curing room. Final finishing steps include the sanding of the canoe down to its ultimate thickness, applying sealant and staining the canoe in the Odyssey Ancient Greek theme. WECCA is very proud of Odyssey and the efficiency with which it was completed. The continued use and improvement of the CNC mould construction method can, in part, be attributed to this efficiency while ample preparation ensured a smooth process. Looking ahead, the team has laid a solid foundation of knowledge for future creation of a double mould and has demonstrated efficient casting techniques that will change the way future teams approach the construction of the concrete canoe. 11

13 PROJECT SCHEDULE 12

14 DRAWING 13

15 APPENDIX A - REFERENCES ASCE/NCCC (American Society of Civil Engineers/National Concrete Canoe Competition. (2015) American Society of Civil Engineers National Concrete Canoe Competition: Rules and Regulations. _Canoe/Content_Pieces/nccc-rules-and-regulations.pdf. 3 April ASTM. (2012). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. C39/C39M-12a. West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM. (2012). Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete. C138/C138M-12a. West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM. (2010). Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading). C78-C78M-10e1. West Conshohocken, PA. ASTM. (2012). Standard Test Method for Test Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. C496/C496M-11. West Conshohocken, PA. Antrim Associates. (2012). Heavy Boats, Light Boats and Hull Speed. April 2015 BASF Construction Chemicals. (2007). DELVO Stabilizer Hydration Controlling Admixture 3 April 2015 BASF Construction Chemicals. (2015). MasterSure Z60 Workability-Retaining Admixture Construction%20Chemcials%20- %20US/Admixture%20Systems/Data%20Sheets/MasterSure/basf-mastersure-z-60-tds.pdf 3 April 2015 BASF Construction Chemicals. (2007). Rheomac VMA April 2015 Yadama, V. (2007). Rule of Mixtures. CE 537. Washington State University, Pullman, WA. A

16 APPENDIX B - MIXTURE PROPORTIONS Note: The air content could not be determined because the pressure gauge metre was broken. Mixture ID: Shell Y D Design Batch Size : Cementitious Materials CM 1 CM 2 CM 3 Fibers SG Design Proportions (Non SSD) Actual Batched Proportions Amoun t (kg) Yielded Proportions Portland Cement Class C Fly ash Silica Fume Total Cementitious Materials: F1 MasterFiber MAC Aggregates Total Fibers: A Poraver Beads Abs: 28% A2.5-1 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% A3 1-2 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% Water W1 Water for CM Hydration (W1a + W1b) Total Aggregates: W1a. Water from Admixtures W1b. Additional Water W2 Water for Aggregates, SSD Total Water (W1 + W2): Solids Content of Latex, Dyes and Admixtures in Powder Form S1 Acrylic Latex Poaint Total Solids of Admixtures: Admixtures (including Pigments in Liquid Form) Ad1 Glenium 7700 Densit y : % Solid s Dosage (ml/100k g of CM) Admixtur e Amoun t (ml) Admixtur e (kg) Dosage (ml/100k g of CM) Admixtur e Water from Admixtures (W1a): Cement-Cementitious Materials Ratio Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio Slump, Slump Flow, mm M Mass of Concrete. Kg V Absolute of Concrete, m T Theorectical Density, kg/m 3 = (M / V) D Design Density, kg/m D Measured Density, kg/m Y Yield, m 3 = (M / D) Ry Relative Yield = (Y / Y D) B

17 Mixture ID: Shell, no medium beads Y D Design Batch Size : 0.01 Cementitious Materials SG Design Proportions (Non SSD) Actual Batched Proportions (kg) Yielded Proportions CM1 Portland Cement CM2 Class C Fly ash CM3 Silica Fume Fibers Total Cementitious Materials: F1 MasterFiber MAC Total Fibers: Aggregates Poraver A Beads Abs: 28% A2.5-1 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% A3 1-2 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% Water W1 Water for CM Hydration (W1a + W1b) Total Aggregates: W1a. Water from Admixtures W1b. Additional Water W2 Water for Aggregates, SSD Total Water (W1 + W2): Solids Content of Latex, Dyes and Admixtures in Powder Form S1 Acrylic Latex Poaint Total Solids of Admixtures: Admixtures (including Pigments in Liquid Form) % Solids Ad1 Glenium 7700 Density : Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture (ml) Admixture (kg) Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture Water from Admixtures (W1a): Cement-Cementitious Materials Ratio Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio Slump, Slump Flow, mm M Mass of Concrete. Kg V Absolute of Concrete, m T Theorectical Density, kg/m 3 = (M / V) D Design Density, kg/m D Measured Density, kg/m Y Yield, m 3 = (M / D) Ry Relative Yield = (Y / Y D) C

18 Mixture ID: Ribs Y D Design Batch Size : Cementitious Materials SG Design Proportions (Non SSD) Actual Batched Proportions (kg) Yielded Proportions CM1 Portland Cement CM2 Class C Fly ash CM3 Silica Fume Fibers Total Cementitious Materials: F1 MasterFiber MAC Aggregates Total Fibers: A Poraver Beads Abs: 28% A2.5-1 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% A3 1-2 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% Water W1 Water for CM Hydration (W1a + W1b) Total Aggregates: W1a. Water from Admixtures W1b. Additional Water W2 Water for Aggregates, SSD Total Water (W1 + W2): Solids Content of Latex, Dyes and Admixtures in Powder Form S1 Acrylic Latex Poaint Total Solids of Admixtures: Admixtures (including Pigments in Liquid Form) % Solids Ad1 Glenium 7700 Density : Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture (ml) Admixture (kg) Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture Water from Admixtures (W1a): Cement-Cementitious Materials Ratio Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio Slump, Slump Flow, mm M Mass of Concrete. Kg V Absolute of Concrete, m T Theorectical Density, kg/m 3 = (M / V) D Design Density, kg/m D Measured Density, kg/m Y Yield, m 3 = (M / D) Ry Relative Yield = (Y / Y D) D

19 Mixture ID: Ribs, no medium beads Y D Design Batch Size : Cementitious Materials SG Design Proportions (Non SSD) Actual Batched Proportions (kg) Yielded Proportions CM1 Portland Cement CM2 Class C Fly ash CM3 Silica Fume Fibers Total Cementitious Materials: F1 MasterFiber MAC Aggregates Total Fibers: A Poraver Beads Abs: 28% A2.5-1 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% A3 1-2 Poraver Beads Abs: 20% Water W1 Water for CM Hydration (W1a + W1b) Total Aggregates: W1a. Water from Admixtures W1b. Additional Water W2 Water for Aggregates, SSD Total Water (W1 + W2): Solids Content of Latex, Dyes and Admixtures in Powder Form S1 Acrylic Latex Poaint Total Solids of Admixtures: Admixtures (including Pigments in Liquid Form) % Solids Ad1 Glenium 7700 Density : Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture (ml) Admixture (kg) Dosage (ml/100kg of CM) Admixture Water from Admixtures (W1a): Cement-Cementitious Materials Ratio Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio Slump, Slump Flow, mm M Mass of Concrete. Kg V Absolute of Concrete, m T Theorectical Density, kg/m 3 = (M / V) D Design Density, kg/m D Measured Density, kg/m Y Yield, m 3 = (M / D) Ry Relative Yield = (Y / Y D) E

20 APPENDIX C - BILL OF MATERIALS Material Units Quantity Unit Cost ($) Total Price ($) Concrete Portland Cement lb Fly Ash (Class C) lb Silica Fume lb Poraver Beads lb Poraver Beads lb Poraver Beads lb Acrylic Latex Paint lb MasterFiber MAC 100 lb Glenium 770 Super Plasticizer lb Reinforcement Hex Wire Netting rolls Mould 1" Foam Sheet sheets Plywood sheets CNC Work PVC Pipes pipes Tuck Tape rolls Total Production Cost: F

21 APPENDIX D - EXAMPLE STRUCTURAL CALCULATION G

22 H

23 I