TANZANIA MARINE RESEARCH PROGRAMME. Utende, Mafia Island, Tanzania

Transcription

1 TANZANIA MARINE RESEARCH PROGRAMME Utende, Mafia Island, Tanzania TZM Phase 142 Science Report 24 th March 16 th June 2014 Catherine Gutmann Roberts (Principal Investigator) 1 of 29

2 Staff Members Name Position Catherine Gutmann Roberts (CGR) Principal Investigator Jennifer Freer (JF) Assistant Marine Research Officer Louise Howell (LH) Dive Officer Volunteers Name Sammy Attoe David Lankes Celina Ramsay Carmen James Programme Marine conservation and diving Marine conservation and diving Marine conservation and diving Marine conservation and diving 2 of 29

3 Contents 1. Introduction Training Briefing Sessions Science Lectures Field Work Training Tropical Habitat Management BTEC Research Work Program Survey Areas Survey Methodology Statistical Analysis Method Overall Results Benthic Analysis Fish Analysis Invertebrate Analysis Discussion Proposed work programme for next phase References Appendices of 29

4 1. Introduction Tropical marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass meadows, are valuable environmental resources that provide significant economic goods and ecosystem services to people all around the globe (Kimirei, 2012; Nagelkerken et al., 2000; Hughes et al., 2003). They contribute to the livelihoods and food security of millions of people living in coastal countries and play a crucial role in both stabilizing global ecosystems and in mitigation of coastal erosion (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). The health and stability of these resources is therefore critical to human wellbeing worldwide (Wilkinson et al., 1999). Tanzania is currently ranked as one of the world s poorest countries, with a large proportion of its population directly or indirectly depending on coastal ecosystems for the provision of cheap, easily accessible protein through subsistence fishing and trading marine resources in addition to benefits associated with dive tourism (Francis et al., 1997). Amongst Tanzania s administrative regions, the Mafia Archipelago is one of the least developed, with a disproportionately large percentage of the population depending on farming and subsistence fishing (Holberg, 2008). Mafia Island is located approximately 120 km south of Dar es Salaam, 20 km offshore of the Rufiji Delta and 850 km south of the equator. It is centrally located in the Mafia Archipelago, a sandstone and coral rag chain consisting of 15 islands, several of which are inhabited. Mafia is the largest, measuring approximately 50 km by 15 km, with an estimated population of 40,000 people living on the main island, with the majority being based in the south of the island. The archipelago is significantly less developed than neighbouring Pemba and Zanzibar (Holberg, 2008; Boeser, 2005) and receives far fewer tourists per year (Holberg, 2008). However, as foreign investment increases, it has been predicted that this will change over the coming years. While increased tourism and development of infrastructure is expected to benefit the local population, it also puts pressure on a way of life that has been conserved over countless generations. Subsistence fishing and unregulated small scale trade are often the only means of obtaining protein on Mafia Island (Holberg, 2008). Given the fragility of the coastal ecosystems, an intensification of these practices may lead to biodiversity loss. The creation of a sustainable fisheries system that guarantees the long term livelihoods of people while also protecting the reefs is therefore of primary concern (ISRS, 2004). Frontier s involvement in Tanzania began in 1989 with the first TZM project located in Utende, Mafia Island ( ). The project s initial objective was to supply a detailed and comprehensive baseline data set on the marine environment within Chole Bay, on the east coast of Mafia. With the aid of this information, a management plan was established for Tanzania s first multi-user marine park, which was gazetted in Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) is responsible for the management of the park and reports to the Marine Parks & Reserves Unit of Tanzania, based in Dar es Salaam. 4 of 29

5 Marine Protected Area (MPA) designations can range from strict no take zones to communally managed multiuse parks, depending on the desired outcome (Mclanahan, 2006). Multi-use marine parks aim to conserve resources and biodiversity as well as improving the fisheries and livelihoods of local people. Successful MPAs have increased abundance and biomass of target species (Lester, 2009), raised fish recruitment rates (Evans et al., 2008) and increased migration of adults into neighbouring areas (Jupiter and Egli, 2010). At the 2003 World Parks Conference in Durban, South Africa, Tanzania pledged to dedicate 10% of its marine area for conservation by 2012, rising to 20% by 2025 (Ruitenbeek, 2005). Tanzania currently has 12.5% of its coastal waters under some form of protection (Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). Frontier returned to Utende, Mafia Island in The marine park boasts high biodiversity with 273 species of coral within 63 genera (Obura, 2004). Fish biodiversity is also high, with 394 species recorded from 56 genera (Garpe and Ohman, 2003). The marine habitats around Mafia are some of the richest on the East African coast and the marine park is a critical area for biodiversity (CBD, 2001). The Mafia Island Marine Park allows some fishing practices within the management plan but some activity also occurs illegally. There is commercial trade of sea cucumbers, gastropods, lobsters and fish (Pers Comms with MIMP staff, 20 th February 2014). A lot of these products may be consumed locally, but some are exported to Dar es Salaam and subsequently onto international markets fish (Pers Comms with MIMP staff, 20 th February 2014). The majority of fish species which are consumed by the local population are emperor and reef needle fish. However, the locals are happy to consume most of the fish they catch; including boxfish, parrotfish, rabbitfish, rays and crocodilefish (Pers Comms, 2014). Practices such as dynamite fishing and seine netting are illegal but still occur at some places within the Marine Park. Live coral mining for lime and use in construction also still occurs on a small scale. There are five species of sea turtle recorded in the Marine Park but in some places they are captured for their meat and eggs. Tourist operators also have negative effects on the reefs through anchor damage, poor dive skills, mangrove clearance for beaches and pollution (plastic and sewage). The Mafia Island Marine Park is different from most protected areas, encompassing terrestrial and marine habitats in its management plan, and it is home to between 20,000 22,000 people living within its boundaries. Hence, the management needs to finely balance environmental conservation with socio-economic development (Mafia Island Marine Park General Management Plan, 2000). The Marine Park is responsible for 822 km of coastline, almost half of the shore around Mafia Island (Fig. 1). While the park management has been largely successful, some challenges have arisen including lack of funding for patrolling the park and enforcement of fishing regulations. Within the park, a zoning policy was developed with three zones; Core/No-Take, Specified Use and General Use. Within Core Zones there is no resource extraction but diving and research is permitted; within Specified Use Zones there is no pull net fishing allowed and no fishing by non-residents and within General Use Zones national fishing regulations apply, with non-residents requiring a permit to undertake 5 of 29

6 activities within the park. Figure 1: Management zonation of the MIMP. See figure key for the different zonation areas of the MIMP. There is little data on the efficacy of the current management techniques and the Marine Park does not have the ability to carry out monitoring in the area. There has been limited data collected or literature written on the interactions between fish, invertebrates and coral within Tanzanian waters. The aim of the current project is to implement and complete aspects of a five year survey and monitoring programme agreed between Frontier and the MIMP. Objectives within the programme include but are not limited to: Collection of baseline biodiversity data on coral reefs Collection of baseline mangrove survey data and mapping of habitats Collection of baseline seagrass bed data and mapping of habitats Comparison of biodiversity in different use zones Collection of socio-economic survey data on fisheries areas and fishing methods Collection of socio-economic survey data on mangrove harvesting, forest logging and coral mining Collection of socio economic levels, including poverty, access to health care, education and impact of tourism Collection of socio economic data on community relations Feasibility studies of potential aquaculture projects 6 of 29

7 Development of a management plan and risk assessment report for the MIMP, based on evaluation of datasets. An important practical indicator of the MIMP success is the health of its fisheries. Maintaining fisheries can provide both indicators of reef community health and livelihoods to local people, who depend on the marine resources. MIMP and Frontier have developed a proposal to monitor fisheries in the different management zones of the marine park. Belt transects are used to estimate the diversity and abundance of fish, benthos and invertebrates (Hill et al., 2004). The aim of conducting baseline survey protocols is to provide an assessment of the abundance, species richness and size of commercial fish within Chole Bay, the health of the coral reefs and the species richness of invertebrate indicator species. This phase was focussed on testing whether shallow or deep survey sites (defined as being above or below 8m) affected diversity indices and hard coral cover and whether there was a significant difference between sites within the Specified Use Zone in terms of fish abundance and diversity, invertebrate abundance and diversity and hard coral cover. The hypothesis was that reefs with higher hard coral percentage cover will have a higher number of fish. It was also hypothesised that high reef invertebrate species richness will correlate with high coral cover and fish species richness. 2. Training 2.1 Briefing sessions Research assistants received briefings after deployment (during the first few days of each month) on health and safety, medical issues, TZM project history, phase aims and objectives and general information on life in Utende. 2.2 Science lectures Marine science lectures were conducted to train research assistants (RAs) in the identification of marine families and species of fish and invertebrates. Training in benthic composition was also carried out to teach RAs how to survey hard corals using morphology instead of taxonomy. Additional lectures were delivered to develop a broader understanding of marine ecology and conservation and to stress the need for research and accurate identification. The book Coral Reef Fishes, Indo-Pacific and Caribbean by Leiske and Edward (2001) was used as reference during study sessions. 7 of 29

8 Table 1. Science lectures conducted during phase 142by Catherine Gutmann Roberts and Jennifer Freer Core Science Lectures Introduction to TZM Hazards of the Reef Commercial Territorial Fish Commercial Schooling Fish Surveying and Monitoring Methods Benthic composition Invertebrate Identification Angelfish Identification Surgeonfish Identification Butterflyfish Identification Extra Science Lectures Fish morphology and ecology Mangroves Seagrass Marine Protected Areas Fisheries of Mafia Island Turtle Conservation Whaleshark Biology Importance of Coral Reefs 2.3 Field Work Training Field work training was provided through a series of lectures and practical sessions. All lectures were given either at camp or in the field. Lectures were given covering all fish families and species needed for surveys; these were split into territorial and schooling fish groups to aid learning. Phase 142 saw continued use of the fish list used in the previous phase. The current Commercial Fish Species List is designed to suit the needs of the MIMP s long-term monitoring program and focuses on commercial fish species and families which are targeted by the local fishing communities and can be indicators of reef health. Fish tests were completed using PowerPoint presentations; RAs were required to reach a 95% pass mark and staff a 100% pass mark before they could take part in surveying. If RAs initially failed to achieve the pass mark, individual study sessions were held and RAs re-tested until the required pass mark achieved. After passing these photographic fish, invertebrate and benthic tests, underwater sessions were held with staff to further test RAs. Fish size estimation training was carried out by snorkelling on shore and estimating the size of suspended plastic fish on a line. RAs swam 1-2 meters above the fish and estimated their sizes. RAs were tested multiple times until they were able to accurately estimate the size of model fish to within 5cm with a 95% pass rate for 15 sizes of fish. Benthic composition field training consisted of a PowerPoint lecture and tests as well as underwater training in the same manner to ensure consistency between recorders. 8 of 29

9 2.4 Tropical Habitat Management BTEC One four-week BTEC was completed by David Lankes this phase which looked into the distribution of mangrove-dwelling crabs. 3. Research Work Programme 3.1 Survey Areas Chole Bay is a highly tidal and bathymetrically complex inlet, is separated from the ocean by Kinasi Pass and Chole Pass and has an average depth of 20 m. The tidal range in the bay is approximately 3 m on a spring tide and 1 m on neap tide, with a small intertidal area at mean low water. There are several fringing reefs located mostly between 6 18m depth with many sand beds, coastal seagrass and mangroves areas. Survey sites during phase 142 were only located in the Specified Use Zone within Chole Bay. This was due to a limited team, bad weather and several disruptions to the survey work. However, this can be used to analyse differences between sites within a single zone and their compositions are not significantly different, if we can reduce the number of sites we survey within this zone. Figure 2. Satellite image of Chole Bay and estimated locations of survey sites, showing the Core and Specified Use Zones within the bay, General Use Zone is the area outside of the polygons (Google Earth, 2014) Milimani North (GPS: S E ) Milimani North is an area of sheltered fringing reef facing inward from the mouth of the bay located several hundred metres west of the Kinasi Pass and surrounded by sand and sea grass beds. Milimani contains a coral 9 of 29

10 shelf that gradually drops to around 20m and contains an abundance of foliose, massive and branching coral. Fish diversity is high, with fish species ranging from moustache triggerfish to juvenile groupers, with large schools of soldierfish frequently observed sheltering in the submassive coral. Milimani South (GPS: S E ) Milimani South is a fringing reef that runs perpendicular to Chole Wall, to the west of Kinasi Pass, and borders the channel running from the mouth of the bay inwards. This site comprises mostly of foliose, columnar and submassive coral morphologies. Fish are diverse with lots of damsel fish, soldier fish and triggerfish. Chole Wall (GPS: S E ) Chole Wall is about 3m deep and separates Utumbe from Kinasi Pass and lies 6.1km from Utende. Chole shows high biodiversity within the bay, with high abundances of Acropora formosa, Acropora valida and Montipora aequituberculata with Scleractinian corals dominating the benthos. There are many Alcyonacea species including Anthelia Glauca, Cespitularia erecta and Xeniidae spp, all in high abundance. The bathymetry of the site comprises a steep shelving wall from 5-14m with a rich and biodiverse reef flat, falling away to a deep water channel filled with sandy rubble. Exposed to fast currents on the tidal ebb and flow, Chole Wall shows a high abundance of both commercial and reef fish species. Utumbei Deep (GPS S E ) Utumbei Deep is a continuation of the Kinasi Pass, leading into Milimani South (an area also known as Coral Gardens) and is the survey site closest to the mouth of Chole Bay. The bathymetry consists of a number of steep-sloped channels with a maximum depth of 24 m. Utumbei is home to a high number of larger fish species, including Napoleon wrasse, rays and groupers. Although Utumbei straddles the border between the Core and Specified Use Zones, TZM is currently using it as a Core Zone survey site due to the inaccessibility of the Dindini site. Table 2. Number of surveys at each site and their designations Designation Deep Shallow Milimani North Specified 4 3 Milimani South Specified 4 5 Chole Reef Specified 4 4 Utumbe Deep Core/ Specified 4 3 Dindini Core 0 0 Nudibranch City General Use of 29

11 3.2 Survey methodology The benthic survey methodology has been developed by Frontier and used to collect data at a number of locations, both across Tanzania and globally (English et al., 1987). Baseline Survey Protocol (BSP) was conducted by a team of three to five individuals, each allocated a certain domain (or possibly two depending on the numbers of volunteers available). Surveyors recorded information on: Territorial fish; Schooling fish; Invertebrates; Benthic Composition and Physical parameters. All surveys were undertaken using Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA). The protocol was conducted using a 100m tape measure weighted with a 1kg steel dive weight secured to the anterior end of the tape or with a piece of string attached to a rock at the site. Set as an 80 m transect, each transect consisted of three 20m sections with a 10m redundant section between them (0-20, and 60-80m). Surveyors swam slightly above the transect recording their allocated taxa within 5 m of the transect and between the substrate and sea surface. Survey dives were aborted if the sea state became higher than a 3 on the Beaufort scale, for strong currents, or if any diver s tank pressure reached 70 bar. Transects remained at a relatively constant depth following the reef contour. Communities were assumed to be distinct at different depths so surveys were classified as deep and shallow within sites and for all sites a contour was classified as being deep below 8m. Prior to the dive; the Physical surveyor recorded the date, survey site, number of fishing vessels on the reef, cloud cover (0-8), Beaufort sea state (0-8) and air temperature ( C). Upon descent, the Physical surveyor secured the end of the tape measure and reeled out 80m of line onto the substrate, securing it within coral or rocks to keep it in place in mild currents. The Physical surveyor would record the start and end time of the survey, the maximum depth of the survey, the visibility (estimated in meters) and the water temperature at the bottom ( C). The Schooling fish surveyor would buddy with the Physical surveyor but swim marginally in front to minimize disturbance to fish. The Schooling fish surveyor recorded all teleost species which generally occurred in groups in the water column (see Appendix for families and species). After 5 minutes, the Territorial, Invertebrate and Benthic surveyors began surveying. The Territorial fish surveyor recorded all species observed within the 25m² box but swam in a generally straight line unless there was an overhang to check underneath. The Invertebrate surveyor swam 2.5m on each side of transect and thoroughly searched for all invertebrates and recorded any they observed (see Appendix). The Benthic surveyor scrutinized the benthos directly below the survey line and recorded the structure (Table 3.) and length occupied of any morphology change greater than 10 cm, recorded to the closest cm on the tape measure. The 11 of 29

12 TZM benthic methodology has been changed slightly for this phase to be brought in line with other Frontier project methodologies, so that sites may be comparable. The data is more in-depth than previous phases, but it will still be comparable to previous phases. Due to the non-specialist nature of our surveyors we do not record hard coral species or genus but instead focuses on morphology rather than taxonomy, this allows us to investigate the function of the reef as a habitat. Coral species have different morphological characteristics as well as morphologies altering with life cycle. All hard coral were assumed to be hermatypic and all soft corals (determined by movement in the water) were ahermatypic. Both Schooling and Territorial fish surveyors noted the numbers of fish seen and estimated in which size category they belonged in (0 10 cm, cm, cm cm and 70 cm +). If volunteer numbers were low then the groups would be limited to Schooling, Physical, Territorial surveyors in that order on the outward transect and then Invertebrate, Benthic and Physical would survey on the return transect. 3.3 Statistical Analysis Method Data was analysed by calculating the Shannon-Wiener diversity index of fish families and invertebrates as shown in the Appendix. Statistical tests were carried out in R-Studio, where General Linear Model analysis was conducted between Hard Coral, Dead Coral, Fish Abundance, Fish Richness, Invertebrate Abundance and Invertebrate Richness, two at a time. Each variable was then compared between sites and depths using chisquared tests. 12 of 29

13 3.4 Overall Results Survey depths varied from 5.6m to 15.5m, hard coral cover ranged from 19% to 83% and dead coral and rubble ranged from 5% to 63%. The mean number of fish observed per transect on a survey (fish abundance) ranged from 74 to 399 individuals. Invertebrate abundance varied between 11 and 126 individuals. Table 3. Summary statistics for GLM comparisons between the following variables, with significant interactions in bold text (Richness is the Shannon Wiener Species Diversity Index, H.) Sites were compared with other variables using Chi Squared. Sites which are significantly different are in parenthesis below statistic. Where there was no relationship between variables statistics have been omitted, only showing P values d.f. = 29 Depth Depth category Hard Coral Cover Hard Coral Cover True Hard Coral Cover Dead Coral Cover Fish Abundance Fish Richness Invertebrate Abundance Invertebrate Richness P = t = P = t = P = t = P < t = Fish Abundance Fish Richness P = t = Site (d.f. = 3, χ 2 ) P = t = (Milimani South) P < t = (Milimani South) P < t = (Milimani South) P = t = (Utumbe Deep) P = t = (Utumbe Deep) Depth category (Deep, Shallow) did not significantly affect the diversity or abundance variables or the proportion of hard coral and dead coral cover. There were some significant differences between sites in the Specified Use Zone, with Milimani South having higher live coral cover and less dead coral than other sites and Utumbei deep showing higher fish richness. 13 of 29

14 Figure 3. Box plots of the number of boats visiting the different sites The number of fishing boats at Chole Reef (Fig. 3) was significantly higher than at all other sites (d.f. = 3, P = 0.040, t = ) but all other sites showed no difference in number of boats Benthic Analysis There was a large range in hard coral cover both within and between sites (Fig. 4), with Milimani South Deep showing the highest coral cover at 83% and Chole Reef Shallow showing the lowest coral cover at 19%. Figure 4. Boxplot showing four sites within Specified Use Zone and the percentage cover of hard coral. Milimani South had a significantly higher percentage of hard coral cover than other sites (P = 0.007, d.f. = 3, t = 2.595) and although Chole Reef showed the lowest percentage of hard coral cover, this was not significantly different to other sites. 14 of 29

15 A SC 7% BR 18% C SA 14% FO 21% E DC 18% BR 16% G DC 13% BR 25% DC 28% RB 22% SO 10% COL 8% SM 26% RB 18% LA 14% SM 12% RB 30% B SA 9% SG 8% BR 29% D SG 11% BR 20% F SG 19% BR 13% H DC 10% RK 7% BR 21% DC 8% DC 17% FO 17% SA 14% FO 17% RB 30% RB 8% DC 13% RB 21% RB 41% Figure 5. Pie charts showing bethic composition of sites showing data labels for composition greater than 6% (see Appendix for abbreviations). Top row Deep sites, Bottom row Shallow sites. A,B Chole Reef, C,D Milimani South, E,F Milimani North, G,H Utumbe Deep Six out of eight survey sites were dominated (highest percentage cover) by dead coral or coral rubble. Branching coral, which was mostly comprised of Fire Coral, Millepora, was one of the top three most dominant substrates in seven out of eight sites. 15 of 29

16 Fish abundance (n) TZM 142 Science Report Figure 6. Hard coral percentage cover correlation with invertebrate richness (Shannon Weiner Species Diversity Index). R 2 = There was a significantly negative correlation between the percentage cover of hard coral and the invertebrate richness at sites (P < 0.001, t = -3.91, d.f. = 29). 3.6 Fish Analysis Utumbei Deep had significantly lower fish abundance than other sites within the Specified Use Zone (Fig. 7). No differences were found between fish richness and site and no correlation between fish richness or diversity with depth. Figure 7 Box plot of site locations and mean fish abundance (n) 16 of 29

17 Moorish Idol (n) Goatfish (n) TZM 142 Science Report After investigating the trends between fish families and different coral morphologies, there were only two significant correlations (Fig. 8 and 9). Abundance of goatfish was significantly negatively correlated with percentage cover of branching coral (Fig. 8: P = 0.022, t = -2.45, d.f. = 29).Moorish Idol abundance was significantly correlated with the percentage cover of foliose coral morphologies (Fig. 9; P = 0.010, t = -2.85, d.f = 29). Branching coral (%) Figure 8 Goatfish abundance and percentage cover of branching coral (R 2 = 0.245) Foliose coral (%) Figure 9 Moorish Idol abundance and percentage cover of foliose coral (R 2 = 0.263) 3.7 Invertebrate Analysis Invertebrate abundance and richness did not differ between sites within the Specified Use Zone. Depth did not significantly affect invertebrates either. The most common invertebrates were sponges, brittlestars, non- 17 of 29

18 Invertebrate diversity (H) TZM 142 Science Report Diadema sea urchins and segmented worms. There is a significant positive relationship between fish diversity and invertebrate diversity (Fig. 10: d.f. = 29, P = 0.040, t = 2.149). Fish diversity (H) Figure 10. Scatter plot of mean fish diversity (H Shannon Index) and mean invertebrate diversity (H Shannon Index) per survey with line of best fit 3.8 Discussion Underwater visual census techniques are ideal for surveying coral reefs as they are non-invasive and can be carried out with limited specialist equipment. However, they can introduce bias in several ways; errors in estimation of size and distance, variation in visibility, fish moving between transects and species recording bias depending on fish distinctiveness, especially from non-specialist surveyors (Harvey et al., 2004). However, with a strong training element and limited species and groups being recorded, this can lead to effective and accurate surveying (Darwall and Dulvy, 1996). Percentage cover of hard coral varied between sites, with Milimani South having the most hard coral cover (Fig.4). Milimani South also had significantly more hard coral when the percentage of branching coral was omitted, as branching is most often Fire coral, Millepora spp,. which is not a true Scleractinian hard coral. Milimani South also had significantly less dead coral percentage cover than all other sites. The differences between Milimani South and the other sites are not easily explainable as they are all under the same management regime, however Milimani South is slightly more sheltered than the rest and there is a possibility that this has aided regeneration of coral, however there no evidence to support this theory. 18 of 29

19 The previous phase showed that Utumbei Deep has significantly higher fish abundance than other sites, including sites from the Core and General Use Zone, however this phase we found that Utumbei Deep had significantly lower fish abundance than other sites within the Specified Use Zone. This suggests the fish that cause the shift in abundance patterns are relatively mobile within the zones and even possibly across the park. Some levels of fish movement are positive for the management of the Marine Protected Area, however, if fish move freely between zones then it could be that the size of the core zone is not large enough to protect these highly mobile species (Walter, 2000). Although, artisanal fishing methods, such as pole-and-line fishing, are used in the Specified Use Zone, these methods are reported to have minimal impacts on limiting the growth and number of fish in coral reefs (Jennings et al., 1998). Ecological interactions between coral reef fish and coral morphologies have been investigated and habitat complexity has shown to alter piscivore success rates and fish distributions (Beukers & Jones, 1997). Therefore we looked into relationships between different fish families and coral morphologies. We found that Moorish Idol, Zanclus oculatus, had a negative correlation with foliose coral. There was no correlation between Moorish Idol and sponge benthic cover, which is their main food source (Wulff, 2006). Branching coral (predominantly Millepora) showed a negative correlation with goatfish, although there was no relationship between goatfish and sandy habitats, although this is the habitat from which they usually search for invertebrates (Lieske and Meyers, 2001) Sponges, brittle stars and urchins (non-diamema) were present in large numbers across the majority of survey sites, the presence of which should be expected in any healthy reef system. Low numbers of crab, shrimp and sea cucumbers were recorded; this may reflect the fact that survey work was carried out during daylight hours, when these species are less active and that these species are also generally more prevalent in shallower waters (Richmond, 2002). This phase we found that invertebrate abundance was negatively correlated with living hard coral cover, which is possibly due to many of the invertebrates preferring sandy areas and dead coral (Richmond, 2002). Family and species richness of fish and richness of invertebrates were positively correlated. This could be due to them both preferring similar ideal conditions or due to high invertebrate richness providing food for fish. Invertebrates may also help to support a health reef system which different fish can thrive in (Lieske and Meyers, 2001). The hydrozoa, Fire coral (Millepora spp.), is the genus most often classified as branching coral; it is however, not a true coral (Richmond, 2002). Its morphology is branching and it has a similar structure, however in the next phase the aim will be to distinguish between hard corals and Millepora spp. Although Millepora spp. has similar growth rates to branching coral, it has the ability to regenerate from bleaching events much more rapidly (Lewis, 2006). This could be evidence that the low percentage of coral cover is due to the mass bleaching event in 1998 (Richmond, 2002). 19 of 29

20 The number of fishing boats recorded at sites was similar at all the Specified Use Zone sites studied although Chole Reef had significantly more visitors than the other sites. This did not seem to negatively impact fish abundance or diversity and low levels of disturbance have often found to have no effect of fish populations and even sometimes to have positive effects (Hiddink, 2008). This study suggests that the provision of any level of protection is biologically important, both for the general promotion and preservation of biodiversity and biomass and for the protection and conservation of commercial fishing in the Mafia Archipelago (on which the majority of local communities are dependent). To ensure fishers are adhering to regulations it is important that they understand the management plan in place and that they are aware of the zoning areas (Done et al., 1997), hence in our next phase we aim to investigate fisherman behaviour and adherence to the regulations through questionnaires as well as continuing the biomonitoring of Chole Bay. 4.0 Proposed work programme for next phase The proposed work programme for TZM during phase 143 includes: Continued collection of long term commercial fish data and coral reef health within the MIMP, in Core, Specified Use and General Use Zones Continued collection of seagrass surveys to assess heath and linkage of certain species of fish and invertebrates with this habitat Continued collection of Acanthaster planci sightings, depth and diameters and analysis of this data Socio-economic study of fisherman behaviour and knowledge of MIMP through questionnaires. 20 of 29

21 6.0 References Bell, J.D. & Galzin, R. (1984) Influence of live coral cover on coral-reef fish communities. Mar Ecol 15: Beukers, J. & Jones, G. (1997) Habitat complexity modifies the impact of piscivore on a coral reef fish. Oecologia 114: Boeser, S. (2005) Global Positioning Systems. Encyclopedia of Earth Science Series, Darwall, W. R. T. & Dulvy, N. K. (1996) An evaluation of the suitability of non-specialist volunteer researchers for coral reef fish surveys. Mafia Island, Tanzania - A case study. Biological Conservation, 78: Done, T.J. (1997) Four performance indicators for integrated reef resources management. Workshop on Integrated Reef Resources Management in the Maldives 1997: Evans, R.D, Russ, G.R. & Kritzer, J.P. (2008) Batch fecundity of Lutjanus carponotatus (Lutjanidae) and implications of no take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs. 27: Francis, J., Nyandwi, N. & Msuya, F. E. (1997) Interdisciplinary survey on the status and socio-economic impacts of coastal erosion along the Tanzanian coastline and islands, pp In: Summary Report of the UNESCO - Kenya National Seminar on Sustainable Coastal Development through Integrated Planning and Management Focused on Mitigating the Impacts of Coastline Instability. UNESCO Office Nairobi. Google (2014) Google Imagery Cnes/Onespot Image, Digital Globe, Landsat Harvey E, Fletcher D, Shortis M, Kendrick G. (2004) A comparison of underwater visual distance estimates made by scuba divers and a stereo-video system: implications for underwater visual census of reef fish abundance. Marine and Freshwater Research 55: Hiddink, J., Rijindsdorp, A., Piet, G. (2008) Can bottom trawling disturbance increase food production for a commercial fish species? Canadian Joural of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 65, (7) Hill, J, and Wilkinson C Methods for Ecological Monitoring of Coral Reefs. Australian Institute for Marine Science, Townsville 21 of 29

22 Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999) Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Marine and Freshwater Research, 50(8): Hughes, T. P et al. (2003) Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs. Science. 301: ISRS (2004) Sustainable fisheries management in coral reef ecosystems. Briefing Paper 4, International Society for Reef Studies, pp: 14 Jennings, S. & Kaiser M. J. (1998) The Effects of Fishing on Marine Ecosystems, Advances in Marine Biology. 34; , 212a, , 266a, Jupiter, S. & Egli, D. (2011) Ecosystem Based Management in Fiji: Success and Challenges after Five Years of Implementation. Journal of Marine Biology. Kimirei, I. A., (2012): Importance of Mangroves and seagrass beds as nurseries for coral reef fishes in Tanzania, Nijmegen Lester, S. E., Halpern, B. S. & Grorud-Colvert, K. et al. (2009) Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: a global synthesis. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 384: Lewis, J.B. (2006) Biology and Ecology of the Hydrocoral Millepora on Coral Reefs. Advances in Marine Biology. 50: 1-55 Lieske, E. & Myers, R. (2001). Coral Reef Fishes, Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. Collins Pocket Guide, Harper Collins, London, 400pp Mclanahan,T.R., Marnane, M., Cinner, J. & Kiene, W. (2006) A comparison of Marine Protected Areas and alternative approaches to coral-reef management. Current Biology 16, Nagelkerken, I., van der Velde, G., Gorissen, M. W., G. J. Meijer, G. J., Hof, T., & Hartog, C. (2000) Importance of Mangroves, Seagrass Beds and the Shallow Coral Reef as a Nursery for Important Coral Reef Fishes, Using a Visual Census Technique. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 51, National report on the Implementation of the conservation on Biological Diversity (2001) Obura, D (2004) Biodiversity Surveys of Hard Corals (Scleractinia) in the Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania 22 of 29

23 Richmond, M. D. (2002) A Field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SARED, UDSM. 461pp. Ruitenbeek, J., Hewawasam, I. & Ngoile, M. (2005) Blueprint 2050: Sustaining the Marine Environment in Mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar. IBRD/ World Bank, Washington, DC. pp 125. Walter, C. (2000) Impacts of dispersal, ecological interactions, and fishing effort dynamics on efficacy of marine protected areas: How large should protected areas be? Bulletin of Mar. Sci. 66: 3 ( ) Wilkinson, C., editor. (2008) Status of coral reefs of the world Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, Australia. online URL: Wulff, J. (2006) Ecological interactions of marine sponges. Can, J, Zool., 84: of 29

24 6.0 Appendices Appendix 1: Commercial fish lists used for surveys Schooling fish list: Common name Latin name Learn to species level: Snapper Black Snapper Bluelined Snapper Blackspot Snapper Paddletail Snapper Flametail Snapper Twinspot Snapper Emperor Bigeye Emperor Yellowspot Emperor Blackspot Emperor Orangestripe Emperor Spangled Emperor Longface Emperor Goatfish Dash Dot Goatfish Sidespot Goatfish Longbarbel Goatfish Yellowstripe Goatfish Yellowsaddle Goatfish Barracuda Great Barracuda Pickhandle Barracuda Lutjanidae Macolor niger Lutjanus coeruleolineatus Lutjanus ehrenbergii Lutjanus gibbus Lutjanus fulvus Lutjanus bohar Lethrinidae Monotaxis grandoculis Gnathodentex aurolineatus Lethrinus harak Lethrinus obsoletus Lethrinus nebulosus Lethrinus olivaceus Mullidae Parupeneus barberinus Parupeneus pleurostigma Parupeneus macronema Mulloidichthys flavolineatus Parupeneus cyclostomus Sphyraenidae Sphyraena qenie Sphyraena jello Learn to family level Surgeonfish Unicornfish Rabbitfish Acanthuridae Nasinae Siganidae 24 of 29

25 Parrotfish Wrasse Trevally Fusilier Scaridae Labridae Carangidae Caesionidae Territorial fish list: Common name Latin name Learn to species level: Sweetlips Slatey Sweetlips Black Sweetlips Blackspotted Sweetlips Goldspotted Sweetlips Oriental Sweetlips Grouper Redmouth Grouper Peacock Grouper Coral Hind Grouper Darkfin Hind Grouper Giant Grouper Potato Grouper Whitespotted Grouper Blacktip Grouper Brown Marble Grouper Saddleback Grouper Lyretail Grouper Triggerfish Redtooth Triggerfish Blue Triggerfish Yellowmargin Triggerfish Halfmoon Triggerfish Scythe Triggerfish Clown Triggerfish Orangestriped Triggerfish Moustache Triggerfish Haemulidae Diagramma pictum Plectorhinchus sordidus Plectorhinchus gaterinus Plectorhinchus flavomaculatus Plectorhinchus orientalis Serranidae Aethaloperca rogaa Cephalopholis argus Cephalopholis miniata Cephalopholis urodeta Epinephelus lanceolatus Epinephelus tukula Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus Epinephelus fasciatus Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Plectropomus laevis Variola louti Balistidae Odonus niger Pseudobalistes fuscus Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus Sufflamen chrysopterus Sufflamen albicaudatus Balistoides conspicillum Balistapus undulates Balistoides viridescens 25 of 29

26 Picasso Triggefish Spinecheek Arabian Spinecheek Rays Giant Reef Ray Bluespotted Ribbontail Ray Bluespotted Stingray Rhinecanthus rectangulus Nemipteridae Scolopsis lineatus Dasyatidae Taeniura melanospilos Taeniura lymma Dasyatis kuhlii Learn to family level Butterflyfish Angelfish Damselfish Chaetodontidae Pomacanthidae Pomacentridae 26 of 29

27 Abiotic benthos recorded during BSP surveys: Form Silt (SI) Sand (SA) Rock (RK) Rubble (RB) Recently Killed Coral (RKC) Biotic benthos recorded during BSP surveys: Form Algae (AL) Hard Coral (HC) Soft Coral (SC) Sponge (SP) Anemones (AN) Seagrass (SG) Description Soft, dark sediment with high organic content, can easily be suspended in the water column and will settle after a short while. Larger course stony sediment which sinks rapidly after suspension Clear geological feature with no visible corallites Unconsolidated fragments of coral, shell or rock unattached to the substrate (1) an unattached bleached coral fragment (2) solid coral skeleton fully bleached and algal growth started. Description Forms beds or turfs of macro-, micro- or coralline algae, includes any turf algal growth on non-growing tops of massive corals Scleractinians, hermatypic, does not move when hydrological pressure applied Ahermatypic, soft corals which move when hydrological pressure applied in water column Soft and grow porous body structures to filter feed. Can be encrusting or free growing possibly moving with hydrologic pressure. Can be many shapes, sizes and colours An individual polyp, with brightly coloured tentacles protruding, often forms symbiotic relationships with anemone fish. True flowering plants which have evolved to live in shallow sheltered water bodies, base of plants attached via rhizophora 27 of 29

28 Hard coral morphological type and description: Form Branching (BR) Digitate (DG) Foliose (FO) Tabular (TA) Laminar (LA) Columnar (CO) Massive (MA) Sub-Massive (SM) Solitary (SO) Encrusting (EN) Description Hard corals which have extended protrusions of branches (e.g. Acropora spp.& Pocillopora spp.) Small and stout digits which protrude, often forming a finger -like shape Leaf-like or forming leafy folds radiated upwards from a central point (e.g. Turbinaria mesenterina) Often with a digitate-like form on top but attached to the substrate with a central stipend with a table-like top creating a flat platform Forming leaf-like plates at parallel which do not radiate from a central point (e.g. Montipora spp.). Large upward columns with rounded tops Colony shape where height and width are similar, i.e. forming solid, rounded or bouldershaped masses, not size-limited Similar to massive corals, however these differ by having extra columns or wedges protruding from the base. Polyps, solitary, free-living and among largest corals > 30cm. Corralites characterised by radial septa around a central cavity (e.g. Fungia spp.) Corallites in a flat plain with the substrate and the substrate below can be seen at the edges List of invertebrates surveyed, originally taken from the ReefCheck Indo-Pacific survey protocol, then adapted to better reflect the local invertebrate communities: Taxa Common name Species Porifera Sponge - Anemone Jellyfish - - Crustacean Crab - Hermit crab - Lobster - Mantis Shrimps - Banded Cleaner Shrimp Stenopus hispidus Other Shrimp - Mollusc Giant Clam Tridacna gigas Other Bivalve - Sea snail (gastropod) - Sea slug (opistobranch) - Echinoderm Sea Cucumber - Brittlestar - Featherstar - Crown of Thorns Acanthaster planci Other Sea Star - Urchin (Diadema spp.) 28 of 29

29 Urchin (Non-diadema spp.) Polychaete Segmented worm - Platyhelminthe Flatworm - 29 of 29