Sport and Sport Sociology in Asia and Oceania

Transcription

1 Sport and Sport Sociology in Asia and Oceania Hajime Hirai SHIGA UNIVERSITY, JAPAN International Forum, 'Reading Asia and Oceania through sport' In September 2004, an international forum entitled 'Reading Asia and Oceania through sport' was held at Shiga University, Japan. The two-day forum was organized by the Asian Sport Studies Group of Japan, a group of scholars interested in sport and physical cultures in the region from social and cultural perspectives. Although the group identifies itself as the Asian Sport Studies Group, interests among the members are the social and cultural analysis of physical activities, games, physical education and sports in the East Asia and Oceania. In this paper, therefore, Asia or Asia-Pacific generally A total of 50 scholars and graduate students from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Korea, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and Japan participated in the three-day forum, presenting papers and engaging in panel discussions. Most of papers in this issue were presented at the forum. The Asian Sport Studies Group of Japan was formed in 1999 by several sport sociologists who were interested in sports in Asia. The initial goals of the group were to conduct field research on the relationship between sports and societies in Asia, and to enhance the overall research and educational environments in the sociology of sport in Asian countries. Pursuit of the first goal has proceeded well particularly given that there is enormous interest in sport and culture in Asia as a result of dramatic changes in the era of globalization. To this extent scholars in Asia share an interest in the many social issues and cultural phenomena seen in Western countries. Members of the Asia Sport Studies Group have frequently visited countries in the region and conducted field research both as individuals and as collaborative teams. However, it did not take long to realize that we were perhaps too optimistic to achieve the second goal of establishing a strong human network to promote the sociology of sport in Asia. The sociology of sport is recognized as one of the sub-disciplines in sport Hajime Hirai is a Professor at the Faculty of Education, Shiga University, Japan. Summer

2 INTERNATIONAL SPORTS STUDIES sciences in Japan. More than 250 scholars and graduate students are registered as official members of the Japanese Society of the Sociology of Sport (JSSS). The society has been active since its establishment in 1993, holding annual conferences and publishing a yearly journal and a quarterly newsletter. However, while Japan, and to some extent Korea, have strong active associations the number of scholars identifying as sport sociologists is very small in other countries in East Asia and Oceania. Within Asia-Oceania Japan, Korea, Australia and New Zealand tend to have the most comprehensive programs related to the social science of sport including the sociology of sport. Indeed, Korea held the 1st World Congress of Sociology of Sport in 2002 at Seoul. Within other countries social science of sport courses are rarely taught in universities and scholars, if any, tend to be rather isolated. Professional networks among scholars in the region are often poor, and opportunities for participating in international conferences and seminars quite limited. For these scholars the main sources of information are through friends and colleagues in Europe and North America, where they often studied either as a graduate student or a visiting scholar. Fortunately, the 'Reading Asia and Oceania through sport' forum, served as a rare but valuable occasion, where local scholars interested in the social and cultural aspects of sports could meet, exchange information and ideas, and strengthening local, regional and international networks of collaboration. Historical Overview of Sport in Asia From mid 19th century to World War I Although often overlooked the study of physical activities, games, physical education and sports in Asia and Oceania, particularly East Asia, is an important area of social scientific investigation. Indeed, the critical historical and contemporary analysis of sport and physical culture provide important insights into wider social patterns and changes along with global trends and transformations. As Guttman (1994: 2) suggests, modern sports, most of which were institutionalized and organized in the 19th century in Great Britain, began to spread into East Asia, Oceania and other regions in the second half of the century. The arrival, spread, and advance of modern sports in the region share some common characteristics, even though there is a certain degree of difference depending on the time, place and local cultural values. Vast areas of the region had become colonies under Western imperialism. The British controlled the social and economic systems in places such as Malaya and Fiji. In turn, the ruling class brought modern sports such as cricket, rugby and soccer into the colonies. Nevertheless, these sports did not displace all existing local physical practices and consequently they tended to remain as exclusive leisure activities for the ruling class within private schools and athletic clubs. In places like Australia and New Zealand, where people from various social backgrounds emigrated from Great Britain, sports soon became one of 6 Volume 26, Number 1

3 SPORT AND SPORT SOCIOLOGY IN ASIA AND OCEANIA the most popular cultural activities regardless of social classes. Sports and, rugby union, rugby league, cricket and netball, in particular, have served to strengthen national identities and, at the same time, maintain links, however superficial, with the British Commonwealth. For nations like Japan and Thailand modern sports were important for sustaining national sovereignty as Western cultures, including sporting practices were introduced in the middle of 19th century. Although the expression of local national identity was important sports were regarded as a positive avenue for experiencing western ideas and values. Sports were often introduced by European and American senior bureaucrats, engineers and schoolteachers, as well as the local political and business elite who studied abroad during their youth. Students and factory workers, who learned sports from these Western disciples, became the prime vehicle for incorporating these sports into the national popular culture. They did so by establishing national governing organizations, and by holding both domestic and international sporting events. Notably, their contribution was beyond simply teaching skills and rules, they taught what they believed to be the essence of modern sport, that is its 'amateur' ideal. It is important to keep in mind, however, that 'amateurism' has been gradually localized to fit into the social and cultural environments. As Light (2000: 182) notes: In crossing geographic and cultural boundaries its practice and meaning in cultural settings far removed from those of Britain and her settler colonies have undergone significant cultural transformation.... Even sports, which are played within the same universal rule structure, are practised differently from culture to culture. Thus, just as the Brazilians and the English play soccer with different game styles, baseball in Japan, Korea and Taiwan are different from major league baseball in the United States. Even within Japan, Korea and Taiwan, baseball has its own unique features. Modern sports, which started to be introduced in the region from late 19th century and early 20th century, were gradually localized through the long process of adaptation. These localization phenomena are particularly evident in China, Japan and Korea, where sports have traditionally been played in schools, companies and the military, and where central authority of the national government over sport administration has been typically quite strong. From World War I to 1980 The first half of the 20th century was a period of stagnation for sport in Asia. The emerging power of Japanese militarism, particularly evident after World War I, and its military conflicts against the Western allied nations and China caused enormous damage to sport in East Asia. Yet, the Far Eastern Games, which originally started as the Oriental Olympic Games in 1913 through the leadership of local YMCAs, managed to survive and was held in Summer

4 INTERNATIONAL SPORTS STUDIES Manila, Shanghai, Tokyo and Osaka every two years in spite of international dispute in the region. But the event had to be halted in 1934 when the Japanese military forces invaded the northeastern part of China (Date, 2000). As many countries achieved independence after World War II, they gradually joined the international sporting community and began to participate in the Olympics. The inaugural Asian Games were held in New Deli, India in The South Eastern Games (SEA) started in Bangkok in 1959 and were held every two years. However, it still took time for sport in the region to be recognized as a legitimate form of popular culture. The main reason for the delay was economic. Most countries could not afford to host international events, build training systems for world-class athletes, nor provide people wider opportunities to participate in sport and recreational activities. Another factor was that, to some extent, traditional exclusiveness in local sport continued. In short, the local sport world was still governed by a handful of powerful politicians and organizations that operated under a veiled dogma of 'amateurism'. Even though the Olympics were held in Tokyo (1964) and the winter Olympics held in Sapporo (1972), their impact on sport in Asia was limited. For example, although the Asian Games continued, venues had to be frequently changed due to the financial difficulties of host countries. Countries and regions regularly boycotted the event due to ongoing political turmoil and international disputes. In part this may have contributed to Asia's relatively low position in world sport. As a consequence sport was slow to take root as a major social institution in many Asian countries. From 1980 to the present Asia has undergone a dramatic transformation since The collapse of the eastern communist bloc meant Asia, as well as the rest of the world, entered a new era, that is, the age of globalization. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on the overall context within which sport operates but also on sport itself in Asia. With respect to globalization communist China now has government policies that favour economic liberalization and the adoption of a free-market system. Korea went through a process of democratization in the 1970s and refocused its national outlook on economic development. Japan was rapidly transformed into a society of mass consumption in the 1980's. Furthermore, nations such as Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand also accomplished rapid economic growth and development that influenced the nature of their sporting cultures. As a consequence of improving economic outlooks along with greater interaction with the global community Asian governments began to promote sports more than ever and people were soon involved to a greater degree as both spectators and participants. Hosting international sporting events became a major priority in terms of stimulating and demonstrating both economic and sporting success. The Seoul Olympic Games were held in Korea in 1988, while Japan hosted another winter Olympic Games in Nagano in 8 Volume 26, Number 1

5 SPORT AND SPORT SOCIOLOGY IN ASIA AND OCEANIA In addition, Seoul, Beijing, Hiroshima and Bangkok hosted Asian Games in 1986, 1990, 1994 and 1998 respectively. In soccer, the J-League, a professional soccer league in Japan, was established in The J-League was followed by the K-League (Korea) and the C-League (China) in The success of these professional soccer leagues led to the professionalisation of other team sports. Sports in Oceania experienced drastic change during the period, too. For instance, in Australia the popular codes of Australian Rules and Rugby League football that used to have strong social class and local community connections became increasingly classless, national and global media entertainment spectacles. Similarly, top-level rugby union in Australia and New Zealand was professionalized and commercialized, following the inaugural World Cup in Beyond professional spectator sports there were other changes in Asia- Oceania sporting cultures. As people's lifestyle changed, their attitudes and values towards sport and physical culture also changed. For example, golf became one of the most popular leisure activities among middle-class males in Japan and Korea. Many golf courses were build in the South East, in anticipation of tourists and golfers from Japan and Korea, in the first instance gradually followed by affluent Chinese and Taiwanese. So-called 'new sports', that is, health, recreational and nature-friendly oriented activities, such as surfing, skateboard, mountain biking, hiking, snowboarding, and exercise and fitness activities, are now not only widely accepted but also considered fashionable. Moreover, sports became a more common feature of various national landscapes with increasing accessibility to participants regardless of age, gender, social class and nationality. Globalization and Sport in Asia Hong (2003: 402) describes sport in Asia today as follows: It (Asia) has become a centre of modernity. Colonization is the past. Globalization is the present.... Although there is diversity in the politics, ideology, culture and economic and social systems of the area, the characteristics of the process are virtually the same: change in sports systems, the involvement of the media, dependence on sponsorship and the growth of a sports industry. Sports in Asia today have been transformed rapidly and widely. The impact of globalization stands out more than ever. In effect, globalization has accelerated the flow of capital, information and people. Moreover, a range of factors, including new technologies, has further increased the nature and extent of global forces. Global companies such as Coca-Cola, Heineken, Nokia and IBM have become regular official sponsors of the soccer World Cup, F1 motor Summer

6 INTERNATIONAL SPORTS STUDIES racing and many other international events. Nike, Adidas and Puma continue to compete with each other to gain a larger share of the expanding and lucrative Asian market. Simultaneously, ESPN and Sky TV are extending their satellite networks in Asia, by telecasting soccer's Premier League, basketball's NBA, and rugby's Super 14. In addition, they are broadcasting snooker, table tennis and badminton, which are particularly popular in the region. European soccer has established its status as the most popular TV program in Asia. Clubs like Manchester United and Real Madrid schedule 'summer tours' around Asia during the off-season attracting thousands of fans just for their training sessions. Asia, which was once a barren ground of sports, is now becoming the most promising market on the globe. With respect to the process of globalization capital and information flows are followed by the flow of people. Increasingly human mobility and migration is having a greater impact on global sporting culture than ever before. Notably, this is happening in countries and regions where it rarely happened in the past. In Singapore, for example, which is ranked 92nd in FIFA's world ranking (as of March 2006), there are many foreign players. There are also examples of franchise relocations including the case of a Japanese J-league club that moved its reserve team to Singapore to join its semi-professional league. Significantly, globalization is not just impacting on widely played global sports, it is happening in minor or local sports in which it rarely happened in the past. In Sumo wrestling, a traditional and popular spectator sports regarded as the national pastime in Japan, for instance, 12 of 42 wrestlers in the top division are non-japanese, coming from countries such as Mongolia, Russia, Korea, Georgia and Bulgaria. Furthermore, globalization is having an impact beyond elite professional sport; it is also influencing less competitive, grass-roots sports. A few years ago when I accessed the web site of the Fijian Rugby Union (FRU), I found that it had an official 'Japanese' web site. Surprisingly the FRU is providing information about rugby in Fiji in Japanese. Even more surprising is that fact that it has information on the country targeting Japanese fun-loving grass-root players. Globalization is also influencing spectators. Fans and supporters are crossing national borders to follow their teams and super stars. This was not very common in Asia a few decades ago. However, today, it is difficult to overlook their impact on society, culture and economy. Increasingly, sports tourism has become one of the most powerful vehicles to promote the globalization of sports in the region. The international/transnational flow of capital, information and people is occurring not only in Asia and Oceania, but also everywhere around the globe. It is not really a new phenomenon. Rather, it has been happening for decades and it will continue to happen. However, what has changed is the speed and scale of globalization. In large part it is related to many factors such as recent growth in national economies, populations, and the development of infrastructure such transportation and information technology, all of which 10 Volume 26, Number 1

7 SPORT AND SPORT SOCIOLOGY IN ASIA AND OCEANIA influence people's lifestyles. Not surprisingly, while certain benefits may be realized for certain people, such extreme change has caused serious problems and may bring more in the future. Studies of sport, and its related areas from social science, have been neglected. Therefore, it is not surprising that the socio-cultural analysis of sport is relatively neglected as an established academic area. But as seen above, sport, as a cultural form and practice has gained widespread popularity in Asia and it is highly likely that its presence will be more evident and powerful than ever. Without doubt sport will remain an important area of government policy and consequently cultural analysis for scholars. Arguably, now more than ever, we need quality, interdisciplinary research along with international collaborative networks to share ideas and solve problems. The Asia Sport Studies Forum serves as an important starting point for such collaboration and the serious study of sport. References Date. Y. (2000). The world of the Far Eastern Games. In, H. Hirai (Ed.) Reading Asia through Sport. Kyoto, Japan: Sekaishisosha. pp Guttmann, A. (1994). Games and empires: Modern sports and cultural imperialism. New York: Columbia University Press. Hong. F. (2003). Into the Future: Asian sport and globalization. In, J.A. Mangan and F. Hong (Eds.) Sport in Asian society: past and present'. London: Frank Cass. Light. R. (2000). Sport and the embodiment of culture: Styles of play in Japanese hniversity and high school rugby'. In, H. Hirai (Ed.) Reading Asia through Sport. Kyoto, Japan: Sekaishisosha. p Summer