The Relationship Between Intraoral Pressure & Sound Pressure Level in Sports Whistles
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1 The Relationship Between Intraoral Pressure & Sound Pressure Level in Sports Whistles Donald S. Finan, Ph.D. Stephen M. Tasko, Ph.D. Gregory A. Flamme, Ph.D. Deanna K. Meinke, Ph.D. William J. Murphy, Ph.D. Adam R. Campbell Michael Stewart, Ph.D. James E. Lankford, Ph.D. Disclaimers: The findings and conclusions in this presentation have not been formally disseminated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy. The whistles utilized in this study were a convenience sample of instruments commercially available at the time of a prior study, and were owned by one of the researchers.
2 Introduction Sports officials, coaches, police officers, and others commonly use sports whistles. As should be clear by now, the sound output from the whistles used by sports officials is high, and there is potential for sports whistles to contribute to hearing loss. Limited research has been focused on how blowing effort influences the resultant sound pressure level generated in sports whistles. This study examined relations between intraoral pressure and sound pressure level of a representative selection of commonly available sports whistles.
3 The Prototypical Sports Whistle
4
5 How does a whistle whistle?
6 How does a whistle whistle?
7 How does a whistle whistle?
8 How does a whistle whistle? Sound produced by vortex shedding, reinforced by the resonant chamber.
9 Whistle with pea
10 Edge Tone Schlieren movie of turbulence at the fipple (mouthpiece) of a wooden flute showing edge tone periodic vortices From: Mico Hirschberg Eindhoven University of Technology and the Vortex Dynamics and Turbulence Group
11 Whistle Acoustics Frequency is dependent on the resonant chamber, not air velocity. Two-chambered whistles produce two fundamental tones & associated beats. Amplitude is related to driving pressure & associated airflow through the whistle.
12 Air Pressure and the Respiratory System Pressures: Alveolar (Lung): P alv Subglottal (Tracheal): P subg Intraoral: P oral (Intranasal: P nasal ) Air Flows: Transglottal Oral (Nasal)
13 Generation of Intraoral Pressure Relaxation Forces: Compressive forces of the ribcage on the lungs produced upon relaxation of inhalation muscles at the height of inhalation generates positive airway pressure. Muscular Forces: Generation of muscle force to compress the abdomen and ribcage (thus compressing the lungs) with abdominal (primarily) muscles.
14 Generation of Intraoral Pressure: Muscular forces Gray s Anatomy, Fig 392
15 Lung pressure associated with common activities Figure from Weismer & Hoit (2017)
16 Research Questions What range of oral pressures are needed to blow commonly available referee whistles? What is the relationship between oral pressure levels and generated sound pressure level? Is this relationship similar for whistles and effort levels? Can we recommend effort levels that will provide a safer level of whistle sound pressure level?
17 Methods: Whistles Number Make Model Pea Reported use, % 1 Acme Wide Mouth Thunderer Yes 8 2 Fox 40 Mini No 8 3 Fox 40 SuperForce CMG Yes 1 4 Fox 40 Sharx No 1 5 Fox 40 Pearl No 3 6 Fox 40 Mini CMG No 6 7 Seron P-38 Plastic No 1 8 Fox 40 Classic No 50 9 Fox 40 Sonik Blast CMG No 0 10 Fox 40 Classic CMG No Fox 40 Sonik No 0 12 Fox 40 Sonik Blast No 1 13 Molten Dolfin No 5 Reported use values after Flamme & Williams (2013)
18 Methods: Conditions Conditions 3 Tweets: 1. Slow ramp up, low effort level 2. Slow ramp up, medium effort 3. Short maximal effort tweet Long Blast: 4. Long maximal effort tweet Replicates 2 replicates (individual whistles) per condition Tweet Total 13 whistles X 4 conditions X 2 reps N=104 tweets
19 Methods: Data Acquisition Microphone ¼ inch G.R.A.S. Type 40BD, oriented at grazing incidence Head mounted for consistent mouth-tomicrophone distance 13 cm anterior & 3.5 cm inferior to mouth G.R.A.S Type 26AC preamplifier & Type 12AA power supply Calibration G.R.A.S. 42AP Pistonphone 114 db calibration signal
20 Methods: Data Acquisition Oral Pressure Recording Sensym SCX05DN pressure transducer Operating range of cmh 2 0 (0-5 PSI) Linearity & hysteresis (combined): +/- 0.5% full scale output range PE tubing placed intraorally behind the lips Signal amplified using a Biocommunications Electronics model 205 bridge amplifier Calibration Extech HD750 (range of cmh 2 0), verified with U-tube manometer. +40 cm H 2 0 reference signal applied using a syringe.
21 Methods: Data Acquisition Data Acquisition National Instruments PXI-4461 dynamic signal analyzer Sample Rate: Hz Quantization: 24 bit Acquisition controlled by MATLAB Data Acquisition Toolbox
22 Methods: Data Acquisition It seemed like a good idea at the time
23 Methods: Data Processing Oral pressure signal: Low-pass filtered at 20 Hz (2 nd order Butterworth) Eliminated baseline offset using first 200 msec of signal Data sectioned out at +2cmH 2 0 intraoral pressure threshold RMS value calculated on acoustic signal (in Pa) & converted to db Intraoral pressure, RMS Pa, and db SPL data interpolated over 2000 points Mean of trials x whistle (2 each) calculated for 3-tweet and long blast datasets
24 Methods: Ooh, data!
25 3 Tweet Results Peak Oral Pressure Long Blast (MAX) Short Ramp Max Effort Short Ramp Med Effort Short Ramp Low Effort
26 3 Tweet Results Peak Sound Pressure Level Long Blast (MAX) Short Ramp Max Effort Short Ramp Med Effort Short Ramp Low Effort
27 Sound Pressure Level (db re 20 u Pa) Results: Oral & sound pressure relationship (3 tweet dataset) Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O)
28 RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) Results: Oral & sound pressure relationship (3 tweet dataset) Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O)
29 RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) Results: Oral & sound pressure relationship (3 tweet dataset) Mean = 0.57 Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O)
30 RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) Results: Oral & sound pressure relationship not so linear? Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O) Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O)
31 RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) RMS Sound Pressure (Pascals) Results: Oral & sound pressure relationship not so linear? Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O) Intraoral Pressure (cmh 2 O)
32 Results: Slope of RMS Sound Pressure (Pa) x Intraoral Pressure Make Model 3 Tweet Mean Sensitivity (Pa/cmH 2 O) Long Blast Sensitivity (Pa/cmH 2 O) Fox 40 Sonik Blast CMG Fox 40 Sonik Blast Fox 40 Sharx Fox 40 Super Force CMG Molten Dolfin Fox 40 Sonik Fox 40 Mini CMG Seron P-38 Plastic Acme Wide Mouth Thunderer Fox 40 Classic Fox 40 Mini Fox 40 Pearl Fox 40 Classic CMG Correlation between sensitivity estimates: r=0.96
33 Conclusions Whistles appear to saturate at relatively low lung pressures (~ 20 cmh 2 0) Linear relationship between intraoral pressure and RMS amplitude of sound pressure (Pascals). Slopes of RMS Sound Pressure x Pressure show similarities for most whistles, but two had the steepest slopes: Fox 40 Sonik Blast & Sonik Blast CMG These two whistles produced the highest sound power (124 & 123 db, respectively) in our companion study and in our peak SPL data here. Long Blast data show nonlinearities not evident in the 3-Tweet data, especially at high intraoral pressures.
34 Implications While low effort levels yield lower sound pressure levels (re: previous presentation), whistles appear to saturate at relatively low intraoral pressure values. ~20 cmh 2 0 is less pressure than required to blow out birthday candles. Depending on how many are on your cake Can we recommend effort levels that will provide a less hazardous whistle sound pressure level? Perhaps not But, some whistles do have lower sensitivity and corresponding lower peak SPL for a given intraoral pressure.
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