The effect of a specific respiration pattern on running efficiency and ventilation parameters of skilled distance runners

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1 University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1987 The effect of a specific respiration pattern on running efficiency and ventilation parameters of skilled distance runners Stuart A. Melby The University of Montana Let us know how access to this document benefits you. Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Melby, Stuart A., "The effect of a specific respiration pattern on running efficiency and ventilation parameters of skilled distance runners" (1987). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact scholarworks@mso.umt.edu.

2 COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1976 SUBSISTS. Th is is an unpublished manuscript in which copyright Any further r e p r in t in g of it s contents must be APPROVED BY THE AUTHO R. Ma nsfield Library Un iv e r s it y of Montana Date :

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4 THE EFFECT OF A SPECIFIC RESPIRATION PATTERN ON RUNNING EFFICIENCY AND VENTILATION PARAMETERS OF SKILLED DISTANCE RUNNERS By Stuart A. Mel by B.A., U niversity of Montana, 1984 Presented in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 1987 Approved by: X / L t ' - ' Chairman, Board of Examiners Dean, Graduate School Date 6 /f ^7

5 UMI Number: EP38017 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT DisMTtation Piibliahtng UMI EP38017 Published by ProQuest LLC (2013). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQ^sf ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml

6 ABSTRACT Melby, Stuart A., M.S., June 19b7 Physical Education The E ffect of a Soecific Resoiration Pattern on Running E fficiency and V e n tila tio n Parameters of S killed Distance Runners (79 po.) Director: Donald H. Hardin This study investigated the effe cts of a controlled resp iratio n pattern on the running performance and y e n tila tio n considerations of s k ille d distance runners. A p ilo t study was conducted in which six male subjects practiced the controlled respiration pattern. The subjects completed four treadm ill tests; two each at 9.75 miles per hour (6:09 minute mile pace) and miles per hour (4:42 minute mile pace) using the controlled pattern for one test and uncontrolled (n a tu ra l) breathing pattern for the other te s t. parameters measured were: to ta l y e n tila tio n, oxygen uptake, yolume of carbon dioxide, respiratory quotient, heart ra te, percentage of oxygen used, and percentage of carbon dioxide expired. Video tapes of each test were recorded to count the number of strides and breaths taken. Each subject was tested on a random assignment of test order. There were no s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t differences in running e ffic ie n c y and in the v e n tila to ry parameters measured in th is study between the controlled breathing pattern tests and the uncontrolled tests or between the indiyidual time seqments of those tests. 11

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to exoress his aopreciation to Dr. Don Hardin for his time and help in making th is paper possible. Gratitude 15 also given to Dr. Charles Allen and Dr. Arthur M ille r for th e ir in te re st and w illingness to p a rtic ip a te in th is project and to Dr. Rod Brod for his immense help. This project depended on the p a rtic ip a tio n of the subject's and the author wishes to thank them for th e ir important contribution. Appreciation is also due to Dr. Gary Nygaard for his help, support, and confidence and for the opportunities he has provided the author. Special thanks is given to P a tti Stanaway for her assistance in the data co llection and analysis and to Ken Velasquez, a great, supportive roommate. The understanding, support, and confidence given by a special frien d. Laurel Labrier, is deeply appreciated. Thank you. b.a.m. I l l

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pane ABS I RA( ACKNuwLRDbBMENTS l is t OB' TABLES LiST OF FIGURES VI V 1. 1 Lna.pter 1. INTRODUCTION PROBLEM IMITATIONS DEFINITIONS HYPOTHESIS ITERATÜRE REVIEW METHOD PU.OT 3"uDV PROCEDURE SUBJECTS apparatus DESIGN DA I A ANALYSIS 4. ANALYSIS OF RESULT 29 j i MODERATE INTENSITY TESTS HIGH INTENSITY TESTS.. 42 DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY DISCUSSION... \7 1 V

9 Lnaorer Faqe RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY 6 A REFERENCES APRtNDiCtS A; INFORMED CONSENT FORM B: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA FORM AND RESPONSES... 6 C; VENTILATION PARAMETERS TABULATION SHEET.. D; HEART RATE & BREATHS TABULATION SHEE' RATIO OF STRIDES TO BREATHS FOR EACH SUBJECT DURi EACH 30 SECOND SEGMENT...

10 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Characteristics of Subjects Total V e n tilatio n ml/minj per time segment Oxygen Uptake (VO^ mi/min/kg) per time segment Volume of Carbon Dioxide (VCO-z ml/min) per time segment, Respiratory Quotient per time segm ent Percentage of Carbon Dioxide Expired (V.CO2 ) per time segment Percentage of Oxygen Used (XO^) per time segment Heart Rate (beats per minute) per time segment Number of Strides taken during each te s t per time segment Number of Breaths taken during each te s t per time segment Ratio of Strides per Breaths for each te s t per time segment Total V e n t i l a t i o n Oxygen U p ta k e Volume of Carbon Dioxide Respiratory Q u o t i e n t Percentage of Carbon Dioxide Percentage of Oxygen Heart Rate Number of Strides taken during each t e s t Number of Breaths taken during each te s t Ratio of s trid e s per breaths for each t e s t Data for a ll variables from a ll tests vi

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Beckman Metabolic Measurement Aoparatus and a subject hooked...to the a p p a ra tu s Quantum XL Heart Rate Monitor as worn by the subjects Lab set up of the video camera and m i r r o r VI 1

12 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION interest in the phenomenon o-f resp iratio n and its e ffe c ts on human functioning has increased the la s t few years. In the la s t year the popular lite r a tu r e has widely publicized the imoortance and benefits of conscious resp iratio n (Perry, 1985; Plunkett, 1986; Jackson, 1986; and Z i, 1986). In the psychophysioloqical lite r a tu r e resp iratio n has been g reatly neglected. T ra d itio n a lly, cardiovascular psychophysiologists have chosen to tre a t resp iratio n as a nuisance variable, often not co n tro llin g for i t or only making cursory attempts to do so (Grossman, 1983). Runners tend to have the same idea about breathing, le ttin g breath patterns evolve unconsciously and autom atically; sucking" in a ir as i t is needed (Plunkett, 1986). Recently attention has been focused on resp iratio n and the influence controlled breathing can have on an in d iv id u a l's l i f e ; mentally, physically, and emotionally (Grossman, 1983; Jackson, 1986; Plunkett, 1986; and Zi, 1986), A uthorities are beginning to reexamine th is natural, involuntary human function, re s p ira tio n, in new perspectives to enhance human performance and psychological and physiological well being (Grossman, 1983; Clark et a l, 1983; and B e ll, 1980). Jackson, who fe e ls that most runners do not breathe properly, outlines a systematic approach to breathing by using a series of s p e c ific s k ills designed to help aerobic athletes control resp iratio n to maximize th e ir performance (Plunkett, 1986; Jackson, 1986). I t is appropriate to examine the e ffe c ts of a 1

13 conscious change in the resp iratio n patterns ot highly s k ille d athletes. PROBLEM The purpose of th is study was to measure the e ffe c t of a specific respiration pattern on running performance and oxygen consumption for s k ille d distance runners. The performance c rite rio n was the length of time the a th le te could continue the resp iratio n and s trid e pattern and the amount of oxygen consumed for a set workload. Two d iffe re n t workloads were used to compare the effectiveness of the respiration pattern at d iffe re n t intensity, levels. Oxygen consumption was measured to report the efficac y of the controlled resp iratio n pattern. LIMITATIONS This study contained lim ita tio n s common to many studies involving varsity athletes. The investigator had to work w ithin the constraints of the track coach and the ath letes school schedule, practice schedule, and competition schedule. 1) The subjects were chosen and placed in each study group. Because of an experimental design requiring a p ilo t study, the sample group was defined, due to th e ir p rio r experience with the sp e cific resp iratio n pattern. 2) The subjects were not equal in knowledge and experience with the task. The subjects' structured practice time during the p ilo t study ranged from minutes per session fo r a range of one hour to two-and-one-half hours to ta l time.

14 study. 3) During the interim period ot the p ilo t study and the present study, the amount of practice time on the task by each subject was unknown. DEFINITIONS The following terms are defined as to th e ir meanings in this Energy Cost, the amount of oxygen consumed for a specific amount of work. VentiI a tio n,... in physiology, the amount of a ir inhaled per unit of time. Dyspnea, short of breath, d i f f i c u lt or labored resp iratio n. Hyoerpnea, abnormally rapid or deep breathing. Forced Respiration, voluntary hyperpnea (increase in ra te and depth of breathing). Muscles of Respiration, Inspiration = diaphragm and external in tercostal s. Forced In spiration = (assist in elevating rib s and sternum) scaleni, ievatores costorum, sternocleidomastoideus, p ec to ralis major, piatysma myoides, and serratus posterior superior. Expiration = (voluntary deep breathing or forced exp iratio n) rectus abdominis, external and intern al oblique, transverse abdominis. Respiratory Q uotient, the re la tio n of CO-z produced and O2 consumed; e.g.; CO^ t O2. Apnea, temporary cessation of breathing. May re s u lt from reduction in stim uli to the resp irato ry center, as in overbreathing, in which CO2 content of the blood is reduced; from fa ilu r e of resp irato ry center to discharge impulses, as when the breath is held v o lu n ta r ily...

15 Eupnea, normal breathing as distinguished from dysonea and apnea. Hvoocarbia, decreased CO-z in the blood. respiration w ill cause th is. Excess rate of Hvoercapnia, increased amount of CO2 in the blood. Hypoxia, deficiency of O2. Decreased concentration of O2 in the inspired a ir. Tidal Volume, the volume of gas inspired or expired during one cycle of resp iratio n. Minute V e n tilatio n Volume, equals the sum of tid a l volumes over one minute. HYPOTHESES 1. The acquisition of the resp iratio n pattern w ill not e ffe c t the energy cost of running. 2- There w ill be no d ifference in e ffic ie n c y in the resp iratio n patterns between the maximal and submaximal e ffo rts.

16 Chaote r 2 LITERATURE REVIEW In a normal, a le r t human, reso irato ry processes exert specific influences upon various aspects of cardiovascular functioning. These respiratory processes may be g reatly influenced by behavioral, emotional, and c o rtic al factors (Grossman, 1983). Peripheral and central nervous system mechanisms may influence reso iratio n to enable humans to employ the most e f fic ie n t breathing pattern for a given exercise-induced v e n tila to ry demand (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). Grossman (1983) reviewed and attempted to in tegrate the experimental lite r a tu r e indicating the importance of reso iratio n of cardiovascular psychophysiology. Grossman discussed three findings the recent research has shown: 1) variation s in breathing pattern may often modulate cardiovascular functioning in everyday l i f e, 2) there are large, stable individual differences in breathing pattern, and 3) variation s in breathing pattern may be g reatly influenced by b eh avio ral,em o tio n al and c o rtic a l factors. Physiologists have found several mechanisms of resp iratio n that may modulate cardiovascular a c tiv ity (Grossman, 1983). Four areas of major importance are: 1) mechanical e ffe c ts, 2) re fle x arcs between peripheral receptors and higher centers (e.g. lung in fla tio n receptors), 3) peripheral input which may often have opposing primary and secondary e ffe c ts ( i. e chemoreception), and 4) input o rig in a tin g in

17 the CNS it s e lf ( i.e. central reso irato ry a c tiv ity ) (Grossman, 1983). These four areas of resoiratory modulation uoon cardiovascular a c tiv ity are expressed through fiv e parameters of resp iratio n : Frequency. Variations in breathing frequency have been shown to produce inverse changes in heart rate v a r ia b ilit y independently of tid a l volume. Depth of V e n tila tio n. Increased depth of breathing causes augmentation of heart ra te and heart rate v a r ia b ilit y, as well as generally increased blood flow to the skeletal muscles and forehead but decreased flow to the hands and fe e t. Breath-Holding. Pausing between in sp iratio n and expiration w ill produce rapid and pronounced bradycardia. Twenty-beat-per minute decelerations frequently occur w ithin one or two beats from commencement of breath-holding. Blood flow to the brain and the heart is also enhanced during respiratory pause. Muscular Mode of V e n tila tio n. Thoracic (ribcaqe) dominant breathing seems to produce increases in cardiac output and heart rate during in sp iratio n and peripheral vasoconstriction, whereas abdominal (diaphragmatic) v e n tila tio n appears to induce the opposite e ffe c ts. Alveolar Carbon Dioxide Tension. Alveolar carbon dioxide pressure has been related to a wide range of cardiovascular parameters, CO2 influences upon vascular tone normally act to a lte r blood flow to the brain and the heart in re la tio n to metabolic needs, providing for a constancy of the in tr a c e llu la r environment (autoregulation). H yperventilation and eucapnic breathing patterns re s u lt in r e la tiv e ly low alveolar CO2 levels causing an increase in ra te and a decrease in tid a l volume of breathing, as well as predominately thoracic v e n tila tio n. Increased production of CO2 in the brain and the heart induces relaxatio n of vascular tone; promoting blood flow, oxygenation of tissues and removal of acidic m etabolites. (Grossman, 1983)

18 A vailable research findings suggest that graded, systematic and d irectio n al cardiovascular a lte ra tio n s may be inouced by CO2 related resp irato ry changes (Grossman, 1933). Respiratory and cardiovascular orocesses are bound together oy independent in trac en tra l coupling mechanisms. There exists a central integration of certain resp irato ry and cardiovascular processes, such that some central neurons serve both functions (Grossman, 1983). Heart rate, blood pressure and sympathetic nerve a c tiv ity are increased during in sp iratio n and decreased during exp iratio n, and also vary along with changes in central resp irato ry response. CO2 is well known to exh ib it powerful e ffe c ts upon the cardiovascular system and, under many conditions, apparently serves a s e lf-re g u la to ry function. CO2 influences upon vascular tone normally act to a lte r blood flow to the brain and the heart in re la tio n to metabolic needs, providing for a constancy of the in tra c e llu la r environment (autoregulation). Hence, increased production of C0% in these regions w ill induce relaxatio n of vascular tone, promoting blood flow, oxygenation of tissues and removal of acidic m etabolites (Grossman, 1983). A transient drop in blood CO^ levels results in hyperventilation that appears to be an integral aspect of stress response. H yperventilation may have evolved as a preparatory metabolic measure for ensuing physical action. The drop in blood CO2 levels is quickly compensated fo r by augmented CO2 production due to increased a c tiv ity (Grossman, 1983). When physical action is inappropriate and not

19 in itia te d, continued hyoerventi1ation may become a disruotive physiological force, capable ot disturbing various systems. In a series ot studies (Schaefer, 1958, 1979 as reported in brossman, 1983), slow, deep breathers with r e la tiv e ly high alveolar COa were compared to fast shallow breathers with lower CO2 levels. The high CÜ2 group was found to have slower resting heart rates, and there were indications of decreased adrenal c o rtic a l a c tiv ity and overall reduced autonomic responsiveness in comparison with the low CO2 group. This research suggested that CO2 levels may contribute to variatio n s in heart rate and other autonomic responses not only during hyperventilation but also during eucapnic states of v e n tila tio n (Grossman, 1983). CO2 levels may be one of the stim uli occurring during re s p ira tio n. Muscle and jo in t movements also act as effe c to rs of resp irato ry rates (Hardin et a l, 1987). Gary's m ultiple factor theory of the control of resp iratio n states that: "Although a number of factors exert independent e ffe c ts on respiratory v e n tila tio n, the to ta l e ffe c t is determined bv the algebraic sum of the p a rtia l e ffe c ts of the separate agents". Several studies have been completed on experimental animals and on human subjects in an attempt to resolve the question of resp irato ry control during rest and exercise (as reported in Hardin et a l, 1987), Dejours (1963) a ttrib u te s the i n i t i a l ris e in v e n tila tio n ra te to neural causes but the la te r increase to chemical substances in the blood. Hey et al (1966) reported that in mild exercise, frequency (f)

20 was often a submultiole of the number of strid e s per minute. VIdrUK & Dempsey (1930) reviewed some of the peripheral and central nervous system mechanisms that may enable humans to employ the most e ffic ie n t breathing pattern for a given exercise-inouced v e n tila to ry demand. Ail of the studies reviewed, indicated that the v e n tila to ry patterns n a tu ra lly favored were the least costly ones in terms of energy expenditure. One series of experiments (Grimby et a l, 1968; Grimby et a l, 1971; Konno & Mead, 1967 as reported in Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980) aimed at examining breathing patterns both at rest and during exercise demonstrated that the main muscle of breathing under these conditions IS the diaphragm. A major im plication from these studies was that breathing is most e ffic ie n t when i t maximally u t iliz e s the diaphragm. A mechanically advantageous range of lung volumes is accomoiished by retention of a functional residual capacity (FRO which changes very l i t t l e from the resting level during exercise despite the occurrence of a substantial increase in end insp irato ry volume. Despite the increased in sp irato ry volume, active expiration is s u ffic ie n t to return the lung to near PRC, but th is requires an additional increment of energy expenditure by expiratory muscles (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). I t is important to note that v ir tu a lly a il normal motor s k ills, of which breathing is an example, are apparently governed by one of the oldest p rin c ip le s in th eo retic al science - the principal of minimal e ffo rt (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). According to MacConai11 & Basmajian (1969 as reported in Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980), movement becomes as

21 e ffic ie n t as possible through a learning process that empiovs selective in h ib itio n of musculature not e s s e n tia lly involved in the movement. The exercise stimulus could ac tiv a te a orocess which applies tne p rin c ip le of minimal e ffo rt to exercise hvperonea. A generaliv accepted concept of the control of skeletal muscle involves the idea that many movements such as those employed in locomotion are in itia te d by a so e cific pattern of discharge w ithin a central nervous system network of neurons (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). These movements can be altered by sensory feedback from involved muscles (peripheral feedback) as well as by inputs from other loci in the CNS. The sensory innervation of the muscles of breathing as well as the lungs are able to generate the wealth of peripheral feedback appropriate to a control system dealing with minimizing the energy expenditure of breathing (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). One of the most e ffe c tiv e adjustments made at the very onset of exercise is the change from predominately nose breathing to mouth breathing (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980). This change in pattern minimizes the resistance to a irflo w and consequently the work of breathing during exercise-induced hyperpnea. Vidruk & Dempsey (1980) propose that the pattern of exerciseinduced v e n tila tio n is guided by a precise precept. One p o s s ib ility being th at the control system is g e n e tic a lly programmed. Another is that the control system is learned. Vidruk & Dempsey (1980) knew of no studies which would v e rify e ith e r of these explanations. Vidruk & Dempsey (1980) suggested th at i f the v e n tila to ry control system has the

22 same c a p a b ilitie s as those co n tro llin g movements, then i t seems reasonable that i t could learn to accomplish a task as e f fic ie n t ly as possible. This suggests that i f such a precept could be present in the in it ia tio n of a sp ecific pattern of breathing as for other types of movement, then there should be a feedback system capable of providing the pattern generator with a continuous flow of sensory data (Vidruk & Dempsey, 1980), Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is defined as the occurrence of cyclic flu c tu a tio n s in heart rate that correspond with phase of resp iratio n. Normal individu als are capable of a lte rin g th e ir own levels of RSA by e ffe c tin g p a rtic u la r breathing maneuvers. Rapid, low-tidal-volum e breathing w ill reduce the degree of heart rate v a r ia b ilit y corresponding to respiratory phase. A slow, deep oattern of breathing, on the other hand, w ill s ig n ific a n tly increase the level of RSA, and a b rie f pause between in sp iratio n and expiration is lik e ly to fu rth e r augment i t (Angelone & Coulter, 1964; Hirsch & Bishop, 1981: Ross & Steptoe, 1980 as reported in Grossman, 1983). The relatio n sh ip between v e n tila to ry pattern and RSA level is apparently the same whether individuals v o lu n ta rily a lte r th e ir breathing pattern or spontaneously manifest v e n tila to rv changes (Hirsch & Bishop, 1981 as reported in Grossman, 1983); implying that variatio n s in breathing pattern continuously moderate cardiac a c tiv ity at least under conditions of rest (Grossman, 1983). Other studies (Fujihara et a l, 1973; Linnarson, 1974; and Sziyk et a l, 1981 as reported in Hardin et a l, 1987) conclude that exercise is regulated p rim a rily by neural

23 mechanisms in lig h t exercise and by blood stim uli released from exercising muscles during hard work. Endurance ath lete s aooear to develop a fte r tra in in g, slower, 1arger-tidal-volum e oatterns of breathing during rest and also show heightened levels of RSA (Astrana & Rodahl. 1977; Karpovich & Sinning, 1971; Miyamura, Yamashima, & Honda as reoorted in Grossman, 1983). The m ajority of the research in the area of reso iratio n has been done on in activ e populations (Grossman. 1983, Clark et a l, 1983). Some resu lts, however, may be applicable to a more active population. Research using populations of highly trained ath letes is being done. There has been a small body of relevant data from studies in conscious man (Clark et a l, 1983). But the data is s t i l l lim ited by the fa c t that most previous observations were made at resting or only moderately elevated levels of v e n tila tio n. Investigators have reported that v e n tila tio n rates at high a ltitu d e were sim ilar to rates at lower a ltitu d e s, but depth of breathing was increased (as reported in Hardin et a l, 1987). Others stated that both ra te and depth had increased between lower and higher a ltitu d e s and hypothesized that athletes would have to relearn breathing rhythms i f they were to perform e f f ic ie n t ly at a higher a ltitu d e. Clark et al (1983) studied breathing patterns in e l i t e oarsmen during submaximal and maximal exercise. Clark et al (1983) found that marked increases in frequency (f) as exercise workload approaches maximal levels is accomplished by progressive shortening of both Te and TI (durations of expiratory and in sp irato ry phases of the breathing

24 13 cycle). During tn is time both Te and T% continue to decrease witn Tg remaining shorter than I t- CiarK et al (1983) reported that the duration of Te is determined by the previous T% in anesthetized cats. This re latio n s h ip is not always found in conscious man, esp ecially during moderate hyperventilation caused by exercise or hypercapnia. Current control models of v e n tila tio n at rest emphasize interactio n s between V% and T%, and some investigators have concluded that Te is determined by the previous T% (Clark et a l, 1983). However, duration of Te both at rest and during exercise appears to be determined at least p a rtly by laryngeal regulation of resistance to expiratory flow. During the more complex states of lig h t to moderate exercise, neural control factors are modulated by chemical e ffe c ts, and the integrated central and peripheral influences appear to determine a breathing pattern that provides the required V% with minimal expenditure of work or force (Clark et a l, 1983). Clark et ai (1983) explained the prominent decrement in Tg during heavy exercise by the use of active exp iratio n. Hardin et al (1987) studied the v e n tila tio n patterns and s trid e rates in middle distance runners. The purpose of the study was to investigate the e ffe c ts of proprioceptive stim uli from muscles and jo in ts as e ffe c to rs of resp irato ry rates, and to measure these resp irato ry rates in ath lete s while running at com petitive paces. Using four male c o lle g ia te ly s k ille d middle distance runners Hardin et al (1987) looked at the r a tio of running s trid e s to breaths during a 880-yard run. The number of s trid e s taken during each quarter

25 14 (220-yards) o-f the test was very constant fo r each of the runners, while the frequency of resp iratio n increased as the test progressed. Hardin et al (1987) proposed that the degree of stimulus from the muscle and jo in t proprioceptive mechanisms was r e la tiv e ly constant. The increased frequency of reso iratio n must have been due to stim ulation from other sources such as humoral chemical s tim u li. To support the conclusion that humoral chemical stim uli are involved, Hardin et al (1987) ran the same runners on a treadm ill at controlled rates. No blood samples were analyzed to confirm chemical Change and depth of breathing was not measured to show changes in resp irato ry volumes, but there was indicated th at a mechanism (probably chemical) overrides the proprioceptive controls of resp iratio n as the severity of exercise increases (Hardin et a l, 1987). Hardin et ai (1987) proposed that the data seem to support the statement by Astrand and Rodahl (1970), "The e ffe re n t impulses from exercising limbs and stim ulation from the brain due to increased motor a c tiv ity must be considered as coordinated activato rs of resp irato ry muscles but th e ir motorneurons are subjected to various degrees of in h ib itio n from the resp irato ry centers depending on the chemical composition of the b1ood". I t has been found that breathing may be synchronized with locomotion in running mammals due to mechanical constraints (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). Some investigators have observed that breathing frequency is often a submultiple of the stepping ra te in treadm ill exercise, while others have found no such relatio n s h ip (Bannister et

26 15 a i, 1954; Hey et a l, 1966; Kay et a l and 1957: Keiman & Watson. 1973; as reoorted in Clark et a i, 1933). Most of the evidence favoring an in tr in s ic linkage between locomotion and resp iratio n in mammals has come from ohysioiogical exoeriments on anesthetized, decebrate laboratory animals and from bicycle ergometer tests on humans (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). I t has been shown that human subjects may display complete or p a rtia l entralnment of resp irato ry ra te to step or pedal frequency during test on tre ad m ills or bicycle ergometers. Howeyer, the percentage of subjects exh ib itin g locom otor-respiratory synchronization in such experiments has varied g reatly, and some investigators have found no evidence of entrainment (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983, and Clark et a l, 1983). Various biomechanical considerations lead to the simple proposition that locomotion and resp iratio n are not independent phenomena in running mammals (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1933). This proposition is based on the assumption that locomotion imposes lim its on resp irato ry function and that breathing must therefore be made to f i t the locomotor cycle. For example, locomotion and resp iratio n both re ly on cyclic movements in the same anatomic system, most s p e c ific a lly the thoracic complex (rib s, sternum, and associated musculature) (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). Also, because the yisceral mass is not firm ly connected to the body frame i t can be expected to s h ift position w ithin the abdominal cavity. Because visceral motion w ill be somewhat out of phase with that of the musculoskeletal frame, the abdominal mass

27 j. tj p o te n tia lly constitutes a "visceral piston", the movements of which could influence resp iratio n by a lte rin g intra-abdominal and in trath o rac ic volume (and pressure) (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). Among modern mammals, humans alone u t i l i z e a s trid in g bipedal g a it- Because of th is unusual locomotor pattern the thoracic complex IS no longer subjected to d irect impact loading (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). Bramble & C arrier (1983) studied human runners for locomotorresp irato ry coupling (LRC). The subjects included both experienced, conditioned runners and persons having l i t t l e or no serious running experience. signals and fo o tfa lls were recorded during slow, moderate, and fast running speeds. and g a it were tig h tly coupled in the experienced runners. Phase-locked locomotor and respiratory cycles were observed in these individu als fo r runs up to 1.25 miles (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). In a il cases i t was evident that breathing was entrained to g a it and not the reverse. In the most experienced (marathon) runners, phase locking occurred w ithin the f i r s t four or fiv e strid e s of a run. Less experienced runners required somewhat longer distances before breathing and g a it were f u llv coupled (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). The inexperienced runners ty p ic a lly showed l i t t l e or no tendency to synchronize g a it and re s p ira tio n. Bramble & C arrier (1983) found that humans use at least fiv e d is tin c t coupling patterns, with the predominant r a tio appearing to oe 2:1 (s trid e s per breath). Slower sustained running speeds are

28 frequently accomoanied bv a r a tio of 4:1. As speed increases the r a tio decreases. S h ifts in coupling r a tio occurred quickly and smoothlv over ju st a few strid es (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). Other sustained LRC ra tio s observed in humans running at moderate speed were 3:1, 5:2, and The bulk flow of a ir to and from the lungs occurs in discrete pulses rather than as smooth diphasic flow (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). Exhalation begins in the flo a tin g phase of the locomotor cycle. Most a ir is expelled in a large i n i t i a l burst beginning at or very near the impact of the l e f t foot (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). Both exhalation and inhalation are commonly represented by two bursts, with the inhalation bursts being of much lower amplitude than those of exhalation (Bramble & C a rrie r, 1983). The time spent in exhalation is noticeably longer than that devoted to inhalation. Bramble & C arrier (1983) found that runners in whom breathing and g ait are tig h tly coupled are "footed"; that is, the beginning and end of a resp irato ry cycle are associated with the same fo o tfa ll when even coupling ra tio s are used (4:1 or 2 :1 ). The re s u lt is that the center of g ra v ity is raised higher during push-off by one leg than the other; consequently, body loading is expected to be asymmetric as well (Cavanagh et a l, 1977 as reported in Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). For humans, Bramble & C arrier (1983) found that increases in running speed are not attended by changes of g a it. The in a b ilit y of humans to change g a it while running implies that th e ir exceptional capacity to a lte r breathing pattern could to some extent represent an

29 ib a lte rn a tiv e strategy for regulating energetic cost. This variaoie coupling in humans becomes a kind of pulmonary gearing mecnanism within a fixed locomotor program. Bramble & C arrier (1983) proposed that the data from free-running mammals strongly support the concept of neurogenic control, but do not indicate the r e la tiv e importance of peripheral as opposed to central mechanisms in such control. The s h ift of LRC r a tio in human runners occurs without any detectable a lte ra tio n in the motor orogram. This indicates that other s tim u li, probably metabolic, trig g e r the change of breathing (Bramble & C a rrier, 1983). For years, leading swim coaches have promoted hypoxic tra in in g conditions with the intent of producing physiological changes which may enhance swim performance in aerobic and anaerobic events (B ell, 1981). During swimming, an involuntary hypoxia exists due to the rhythmical moyements of the arms and the head to breathe. Bel 1(1981) studied the e ffe c ts of two breathing patterns (1, breathing every stroke, 2. breathing every other stroke) on selected physiological parameters of male swimmers. B e il(1981) concluded that when breathing only on a lte rn a te arm strokes, a swimmer can. perform at submaximal speed with lower metabolic cost. A d d itio n ally, i t is possible that when performing at near maximal speeds in the 200-yard fre e s ty le, a swimmer w ill incur less fatig u e when breathing on a lte rn a te arm strokes (B ell, 1981). Hardin et al (1987) proposed a p ractical application from the data co llected, "... t h a t requiring an a th le te to concentrate on rhythmical

30 Oreathinq during endurance events mav be warranted, although breathing patterns adjust through several mechanisms that are seit-requ iacory even at high a ltitu d e s. However, the cost of additional oreathing (('-ate and ceoth) w ill invoive manv respiratory muscles ana that these muscles, i f not conditioned, may become a lim itin g facto r in endurance contests", Martin et al ( ), however, indicate that anaerooic metaoolism in maximal exercise may warrant breathing control (reported in Hardin et a l, ). The components of th is study, respiratio n and performance are in te rre la te d with the a c tiv ity of relaxatio n. I t appears that the typical resp irato ry pattern c h a ra c te ris tic of stressful s itu atio n s is one of rapid ra te, altered tid a l volume, r e la tiv e hypocapnia, and predominately thoracic mode. Relaxing enhances abdominaldiaphragmatic breathing thus re lie v in g the stressful s itu a tio n. A sign of a relaxed state is a change in resp iratio n. Deep oreathing with long exhalations contribute to relaxatio n (Curtis & Detert, ). Relaxation is also a function of peak performance. Peax performance is a time when everything comes together exactly rig h t and every movement 15 f lu id, sure, and natural for the a th le te (G arfield & Bennett, 1984; E l l i o t t, ). This level of performance occurs when the a th le te is relaxed and le ts his physical s k ills flow autom atically (G arfield & Bennett, ). Relaxation is a physiological state that is the opposite of the stress state (Curtis & D etert, ). The relaxatio n response is usually attained by f i r s t a lte rin g the resp iratio n p attern. For relaxatio n the resp iratio n pattern is altered by prolonging the

31 J exhalation; a feature contained in the oreathing oatrern used by tne present subjects. A study by Haas, Axen, Ehr11 chman, & Haas (1980 as reported in Grossman, 1983) found resu lts characterizing tne differences between relaxed people and anxious people. Individuals whose habitual breathing patterns were slow and of large tid a l volume were found to be confident, emotionally stable, and physically and in te lle c tu a lly active individu als. On the other hand, rapid, lowtidal-volum e breathers tended to be passive, dependent, fe a rfu l and shy. Differences between groups were s ig n ific a n t. These findings are supported by several studies which c le a rly indicate that voluntary a lte ra tio n s in breathing pattern can modulate the subjective experience of stressful s itu atio n s (as reported in Grossman, 1983). Relaxation nas also been reported to decrease oxygen consumption. For a distance runner th is means that he w ill require less oxygen to run the same speed ( E llio t t, 1984). Zi (1986) has used the idea of imagery to help people learn to control and to u t i l i z e more e f fic ie n t ly th e ir re s p ira tio n. Zi (1986) feels having an e ffe c tiv e breathing system performance in any a c tiv ity w ill be enhanced. This study is attempting to in vestigate the e ffe c ts of a sp ecific re s p ira tio n pattern for runners. The runners th at are the subjects in th is study are to use a resp iratio n pattern that involves inhaling for two (2) strid e s and exhaling for three (3) strid e s while performing at maximal and submaximal exertion. This study w ill in vestig ate the e ffe c ts of th is oreathing pattern on the

32 runners performance at two d iffe re n t workloads.

33 Chapter 3 METHOD P ilo t Study A p ilo t study was conducted during the f a ll quarter of Five male subjects from the U niversity of Montana Cross Country team p articip ated in mental practice of a sp ecific resp iratio n pattern. The objective was to teach the runners to consciously manipulate th e ir breathing pattern to improve running e ffic ie n c y. The subjects averaged 6.8 sessions which lasted approximately fifte e n minutes each. From the feedback given the researcher throughout the p ilo t study the present study was developed. For several reasons, th is study was developed from the p ilo t study. F ir s t, because of f a m ilia r it y with the task the subjects from the previous study were used. The subjects p rio r experience both physically and mentally with the sp ecific resp iratio n pattern c la s s ifie d the runners as being s k ille d at the task. Second, the ben efits of relaxatio n and v is u a liza tio n, (e.g., lowered arousal and improved concentration) were reported in the p ilo t study. Third, the idea th at conscious control of resp iratio n may improve running performance and/or e ffic ie n c y. This investigation is an extension of a p ilo t study using the same sample. The in vestigator worked in conjunction with the running coach at the U n iversity of Montana, teaching p a rtic u la r breathing exercises to the runners. The o bjective was for the runners to gain conscious control of th e ir breathing in a more energy e f fic ie n t pattern to aid in

34 performance. During the last year the runners (subjects) had been exposed to the breathing pattern via verbal communication from the coach. PROCEDURE Subjects The subjects in th is study were six (6) c o lle g ia te and postc o lle g ia te distance runners. Four were members of the U niversity of Montana Cross country and track teams, while two were alumnus of those teams. The runners p articip ated on the basis of th e ir involvement from the p ilo t study. Informed consent was obtained from each subject. (See Appendix A) The runners worked with the investigator in unstructured mental practice sessions for six weeks, rehearsing the controlled res p ira tio n pattern. Subjects were instructed to physically p ractice the resp ira tio n pattern while running. Data was collected to assess the subjects c h a ra c te ris tic s in terms of: age, height, weight, number of years running, number of years running c o lle g ia te ly and postcol le g ia te ly, and best time fo r sp e cific distances (see Appendix B ). Physical c h a ra c te ris tic s of the subjects can be found in Table 1. Each of the subjects were in a tra n s itio n from a pre-com petition program to a competition program of tra in in g when the data was gathered in March of Apparatus The performance measurement was done on a Quinton treadm ill using an o p en -circu it spirometry. Measurement of the number of breaths (counted as in h a la tio n s ), the volume of a ir v e n tila ted through the lungs, the volume of oxygen used, carbon dioxide volume produced, and

35 TABLE 1 C h aracteristics of Subiects Subject Age Height Weight Best time for (cm) (kg) 1500m 5000m :20 16: : : :02 14: , : 10 15: :51 13:56 Means :04 15:26 resp irato ry quotient <RQ) was recorded by a Beckman Metabolic Measurement Apparatus (MMA) fo r each subject. A nose c lip was worn as part of the spirometry apparatus. Figure 1 shows pictures of the Beckman MMA and a subject hooked up to i t. Heart ra te was recorded by a Quantum XL Heart Rate Monitor. Figure 2 shows the Quantum XL Heart ra te monitor and as i t was worn by the subjects. A Panasonic Video Recorder and Camera was used to videotape the number of s trid e s the runner took in conjunction with his v e n tila tio n.

36 The camera was positioned diagonally o-ft of the subjects rig h t shoulder, at head le v e l, focused in on the face and the spirometry mouthpiece. A 3 ' x 5' mirror was positioned on the l e f t side of the sudject to r e fle c t the legs into the camera. This process provided a s p lit screen image on one video camera and recorder. Figure 3 shows pictures of the lab set up in terms of the video camera and m irror. Design The controlled resp iratio n pattern consisted of inhaling for two (2) s trid e s and exhaling for three (3) s trid e s. The main c rite rio n was the occurrence of a longer exhalation phase than inhalation phase in terms of the number of strid e s taken. This controlled resp iratio n pattern was compared to the runners uncontrolled normal resp iratio n pattern. Individuals have reported the use of d iffe re n t resp iratio n patterns ( i. e., 2 strid es inhale-3 strid e s exhale, 2-5, 3-4) for enhanced performance (Plunkett, 1986), but no empirical laboratory studies could be found by the investigator. The two procedures are; group A = te s t 1 & 3 running and test 2 & 4 focusing on the exhalation, group B = te s t 1 & 3 focusing on the exhalation and te s t 2 & 4 running. The subjects were randomly placed in to the two procedure groups. The performance task chosen was a sp e cific controlled resp iratio n pattern used during running, at a maximal and submaximal aerobic e f fo r t. Half of the subjects (group A) were instructed to focus on the controlled breathing pattern (exhalation) for the f i r s t and th ird tests while the other subjects (group B) ran normally fo r the f i r s t and th ird tests. For the second and fourth tests group A was

37 z c j Figure 1. Pictures of the Beckman Metabolic Measurement Apparatus and a subject hooked to the apparatus.

38 F ig u re 2. The Quantum XL Heart Rate monitor as worn by the subjects,

39 i b Figure 3. Lab set up o+ the video camera and mirror 4

40 instructed to run normally while group B was instructed to focus on the exhalation for the second and fourth tests. P rio r to the testing day the subjects attended an acclim atizatio n period Of running on the treadm ill with a mouthpiece and nose c lip attached. The testin g began with a five-m inute warm-up run for the subject on the tre a d m ill. The subject was then hooked up to the ECb apparatus and the spirometry mouthpiece and nose c lip. The testing period was conducted from a running s ta r t. The treadm ill was started at 3 miles per hour <mph) with the subject on i t. Every fiv e seconds the speed was increased 1 mph up to the task pace; mph for tests 1 & 2 or 9.75 mph for tests 3 & 4. F ifteen seconds a fte r the task speed was achieved the 3-minute data co llectio n period began. Every 15 seconds heart ra te (HR) was recorded and every 30 seconds v e n tila tio n, oxygen consumption, resp irato ry quotient, and the number of breaths was recorded (see Appendix C & D ). Video taping was conducted over the e n tire procedure. The protocol lis te d above was repeated for a ll four tests. DATA ANALYSIS The physiological performance resu lts were analyzed by use of a t - t e s t comparing the controlled te s t to the uncontrolled test at both in te n s ity levels*. Each 30 second segment of the tests were compared as well as the mean score fo r each te s t. Significance was determined to occur at the.05 alpha le v e l. The videos were analyzed fo r the r a tio of s trid e s to breaths fo r comparison of the number of s trid e s taken during exhalation and the number of strid e s taken during in h alatio n.

41 The videos were analyzed in slow-motion soeed by the investigator and an assistant counting the number of inhalations and exhalations in comparison to the number of strid e s. The to ta l number of breaths taken for each 30 second seqment were also recorded.

42 CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS This chaoter presents the data obtained in th is studv and s ta t is t ic a l analysis of the data. The controlled resp iratio n pattern on the parameters measured was compared to the uncontrolled resp iratio n pattern, using a tw o -tailed t test tor the mean differen ce at the.05 alpha level of significance. Test means, the mean differences, and the s t a t is t ic a l significance of differences for the ten variables measured across the individual time segments and the sum of those time segments are presented in tables 2 through 11 and 12 through 21, respectively. Moderate in te n s ity tests Five of the subjects completed both 4-minute tests, while the sixth subject was stopped a fte r two minutes of his second te s t. This subject did not complete e ith e r of the high in te n s ity tests. No overall differences between the controlled breathing test and the uncontrolled te s t were shown with the exception of one s ig n ific a n t 30- second time segment. Table 10 indicates the number of strid e s taken per 30 second segment fo r a ll tests. During the f i f t h segment ( s> the number of s trid e s taken during the controlled breathing test were s ig n ific a n tly greater than those taken during the uncontrolled te s t (39 strid e s to 83 strid e s respectively, p < 0.006). During the seventh segment ( s) the production of carbon dioxide (VCOz in ml/min) was greater during the controlled breathing te s t compared to the uncontrolled te s t (2,753.0 L to 2,595.4 L 31

43 TABLE 2 Total V e n tila tio n (ml/min) Means and s ig n if ic a n c e le v e l o f each 30 second (s) segment f o r th e M od erate i n t e n s it y t e s t s. Time Means Control led Uncontrol led Mean Difference Significance ** 0-30s n=6 65, , , s n=6 78, , , S n=6 81, , , s n=6 85, , , s n=6 84, , ,369.S s n=5 80, , , Os n=5 82, , S n=5 79, , , Means and significance level for each 30 second (s) segment for the High in te n s ity tests. Time Means Control led Uncontrol led Mean Difference Significance ** 0-30s n=5 86, , , S n=5 105, , , , S n=5 113, , , s n=5 119, , , U s n=3 117, , , s n=3 121, ,

44 TABLE 3 Oxygen Uptake (VOs) (ml/min/kg) Means and s ig n if ic a n c e le v e l of each 30 second (s) segment f o r th e M od erate i n t e n s it y t e s t s. Time Means Control led Mean Difference Uncontrol led Significance ** 0-30s n= s n= U 90s n= s n= s n= s n= s n= ** S n Means and significance level of each 30 second in te n s ity tests- (s) segment for the High 1i me Means Controlled Uncontrolled Mean Difference Significance 0-30s n= ** 30 60s n= S n= s n= s n= s n=